From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Agriculture General Agribusiness · Agriculture Agricultural science · Agronomy Animal husbandry Extensive farming Factory farming · Free range Industrial agriculture Intensive farming Organic farming · Permaculture Sustainable agriculture Urban agriculture History History of agriculture Neolithic Revolution Muslim Agricultural Revolution British Agricultural Revolution Green Revolution Particular Aquaculture · Christmas trees · Dairy farming Grazing · Hydroponics · IMTA Intensive pig farming · Lumber Maize · Orchard Poultry farming · Ranching · Rice Sheep husbandry · Soybean System of Rice Intensification Wheat Categories Agriculture by country Agriculture companies Agriculture companies, U.S. Biotechnology Farming history Livestock Meat processing Poultry farming Agropedia Portal

Organic farming is a form of agriculture which excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth regulators, livestock feed additives, and genetically modified organisms. As far as possible, organic farmers rely on crop rotation, integrated pest management, crop residue, compost and mechanical cultivation to maintain soil productivity and control pests.

Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many nations, based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, an international umbrella organization for organic organizations. Approximately 31 million hectares (75 million acres) worldwide are now grown organically.^[1]

The overarching goal of organic farming is defined as follows:

"The role of organic agriculture, whether in farming, processing, distribution, or consumption, is to sustain and enhance the health of ecosystems and organisms from the smallest in the soil to human beings."

—International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) - The Principles of Organic Agriculture - Principle of health

Contents 1 Overview 2 History 3 Structure 4 Methods 4.1 Standards 4.1.1 Composting 5 Economics 5.1 Productivity 5.2 Pesticides 5.2.1 Health Risks 5.2.1.1 Children's health 5.2.2 Runoff 5.3 Genetically modified organisms 5.4 Food quality 5.5 Soil conservation 5.6 Nutrient Leaching 6 Capacity building 7 Future 8 Controversy 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links

"An organic farm, properly speaking, is not one that uses certain methods and substances and avoids others; it is a farm whose structure is formed in imitation of the structure of a natural system that has the integrity, the independence and the benign dependence of an organism"

—Wendell Berry, "The Gift of Good Land"

Organic farming excludes the use of certain synthetic inputs, such as synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). In a number of countries, including the US, China^[1] and most of Europe, organic farming is also defined by law, so that the commercial use of the term organic to describe farming and food products is regulated by their respective governments. Where laws exist, organic certification is available to farms for a fee, and it is usually illegal for a non-certified farm to call itself or its products organic. Elsewhere, for example, in Canada, voluntary certification is available, while legislation may be pending.

Methods of organic farming vary. However, organic approaches share common goals and practices. In addition to the exclusion of synthetic agrichemicals, these include protection of the soil (from erosion, nutrient depletion, structural breakdown), promotion of biodiversity (for example growing a variety of crops rather than a single crop or planting hedges around fields), and outdoor grazing for livestock and poultry, though none of these is required in the United States to earn the USDA organic seal^{[2] [3]} . Within this framework, individual farmers develop their own organic production systems, determined by factors such as climate, market conditions, and local agricultural regulations.

Main article: History of organic farming

The organic movement as its known today began in the 1930s and 1940s as a reaction to agriculture's growing reliance on synthetic fertilizers. Artificial fertilizers had been created during the 18th Century, initially with superphosphates, then nitrates, and nitrites mass-produced using the Haber-Bosch ammonia process during World War I. These early fertilizers were cheap, powerful, and easy to transport in bulk.

Sir Albert Howard is widely considered to be the father of organic farming.^[2] Rudolf Steiner, a German philosopher, made influential strides in the earliest organic theory with his biodynamic agriculture. More work was done by J.I. Rodale in the United States, Lady Eve Balfour in the United Kingdom, and many others across the world.

As a percentage of total agricultural output, organic farming has remained tiny since its beginning, but it began to see renewed interest in the 1980s in response to increased environmental awareness. Farmers supplying organic products found their goods to be in high demand. Certification, premium prices, and in some cases government subsidies have since attracted many farmers into converting. In the developing world, many farmers grow according to traditional methods but are not certified. In other cases, farmers in the developing world have converted out of necessity. As a proportion of total global agricultural output, organic output remains small, but it has been growing rapidly in many countries, notably in Europe.

Organic farming begins with the farming itself, but farmers must also market and sell their products. Thus organic business has an hierarchical structure: the foundation of production is linked to consumers through distribution and marketing. The composition of this organic production and market varies largely from country to country and from product to product, dependent upon variables such as climate, local attitudes, consumer demand, and government support. In some areas, such as the United States, the production of organic foods may be small relative to the size of the organic market because of high imports. Other areas, like the European Union, may be more balanced.

In the United States organic farms remain small and somewhat fragmented. Groups of small farms often join together in cooperatives such as Organic Valley, Inc. to market their goods more effectively. Over the past twenty years distributors have consolidated. Rural sociologist Philip H. Howard has researched the structure and transformation of the organic industry in the United States. He claims that in 1982 there were 28 consumer cooperative distributors but as of 2007 there are only 3.^[4]

Main article: Organic farming methods

The term holistic is often used to describe organic farming ^[3], Enhancing soil health is the cornerstone of organic farming ^[4]. A variety of methods are employed, including crop rotation, green manure, cover cropping, application of compost, and mulching. Organic farmers also use certain processed fertilizers such as seed meal, and various mineral powders such as rock phosphate and greensand, a naturally occurring form of potash.

Pest control targets animal pests (including insects), weeds and disease. Organic pest control involves the cumulative effect of many techniques, including, allowing for an acceptable level of pest damage, encouraging or even introducing beneficial organisms, careful crop selection and crop rotation, and mechanical controls such as row covers and traps. These techniques generally provide benefits in addition to pest control—soil protection and improvement, fertilization, pollination, water conservation, season extension, etc.—and these benefits are both complementary and cumulative in overall effect on farm health . Effective organic pest control requires a thorough understanding of pest life cycles and interactions.

Weeds are controlled mechanically, thermically and through the use of covercrops and mulches.

Main article: Organic certification

Organic farming is distinguished by formal standards regulating production methods, and in some cases, final output. Standards may be voluntary or legislated. As early as the 1970s, private associations created standards, against which organic producers could voluntarily have themselves certified. In the 1980s, governments began to produce organic production guidelines. Beginning in the 1990s, a trend toward legislation of standards began, most notably the EU-Eco-regulation developed in the European Union.

In 1991, the European Commission formulated the first government system to regulate organic labeling. setting the rules for 12 countries.^[5] Organic certification became mandatory and was also required for organic imports. The mandatory certification solidified consumer trust in organic products.

An international framework for organic farming is provided by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), the international democratic umbrella organization established in 1972. For IFOAM members, organic agriculture is based upon the Principles of Organic Agriculture and the IFOAM Norms.^[6] The IFOAM Norms consist of the IFOAM Basic Standards and IFOAM Accreditation Criteria.

The IFOAM Basic Standards are a set of "standards for standards." They are established through a democratic and international process and reflect the current state of the art for organic production and processing. They are best seen as a work in progress to lead the continued development of organic practices worldwide. They provide a framework for national and regional standard-setting and certification bodies to develop detailed certification standards that are responsive to local conditions.

Legislated standards are established at the national level, and vary from country to country. In recent years, many countries have legislated organic production, including the EU nations (1990s), Japan (2001), and the US (2002). Non-governmental national and international associations also have their own production standards. In countries where production is regulated, these agencies must be accredited by the government.

Since 1993 when EU Council Regulation 2092/91 became effective, organic food production has been strictly regulated in the UK.

In India, standards for organic agriculture were announced in May 2001, and the National Programme on Organic Production (NPOP) is administered under the Ministry of Commerce.

In 2002, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) established production standards, under the National Organic Program (NOP), which regulate the commercial use of the term organic.^[7] Farmers and food processors must comply with the NOP in order to use the word.

Under USDA organic standards, manure must be composted and allowed to reach a sterilizing temperature. If raw animal manure is used, 120 days must pass before the crop is harvested.^[8]

Main article: Economics of Organic farming

The economics of organic farming is the study of the effects of organic farming and its ultimate economic impact upon society, specifically in terms of yields, benefits, costs, and employment effects. Like most economics, it generally takes an anthropocentric approach to the value of the natural world. Agricultural economics has been a major part of the economics field for many years, but research on organic farming has been sparse until recently. Economics encompasses specific finances of organic farming but its scope is much broader. Economists include opportunity costs, social costs, and unintended consequences in their analysis of economic profit. The economics of organic farming covers a variety of aspects of organic farming, from its government support and external impacts to its information asymmetries and economies of scale, especially in regards to marketing and distribution. Currently studies suggest that converted organic farms have lower yields than their conventional counterparts in developed countries but equal or greater yields in developing countries. On the other hand, organic methods require almost less synthetic fertilizer, pesticides, water, and energy. The decreased cost on those inputs, along with the premium which consumers pay for organic produce, create comparable profits for organic farmers. Some governments, such as the European Union, subsidize organic farming, in large part because of increased biodiversity, reduced soil erosion, and reduced water contamination by pesticides and nutrients.

Organic farming differs from conventional farming in both its methods and its effects. Organic agriculture is considered by many policymakers in Europe, India, and China to be a beneficial activity with external benefits for society, and thus there are some efforts to encourage it with subsidies, especially in Europe and China.^[9] Organic farming is highly labor and knowledge-intensive whereas conventional farming is capital-intensive, requiring more energy and manufactured inputs. Organic farming generally produces somewhat lower yields but sustains better yields during drought years^[10]. Studies thus far have shown that organic farming requires less water, uses few and always natural pesticides, prevents soil erosion, leaches dramatically fewer nitrates, and has been shown to have improved nutrient qualities including as as much as double the flavonoids, an important antioxidant^{[citation needed]}.

A 22-year farm trial study by Cornell University published in 2005 concluded that organic farming produces the same corn and soybean yields as conventional methods over the long-term averages, but consumed less energy and contained no pesticide residues. This was attributed to lower yields in general but much higher yields during drought years.^[10] On the other hand, a prominent 21-year Swiss study found an average of 20% lower organic yields over conventional, along with 50% lower expenditure on fertilizer and energy, and 97% less pesticides.^[11] A recent University of Michigan study found that yields in developing world could "double or triple" with organic methods, mainly because the developing world lacks access to cheap pesticides and fertilizer.^[12] A major US survey published in 2001, analyzed results from 150 growing seasons for various crops and concluded that organic yields were 95-100% of conventional yields.^[13] A long-term study by U.S Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists concluded that organic farming can build up soil organic matter better than conventional no-till farming. ^[14]

The issue of productivity is more complex than a summary of yield (production per land area), which was the measure used in these studies. Instead, productivity could be calculated in labor time rather than by land area. Organic methods often require more labor,^[15] providing rural jobs but increasing costs to urban consumers. Also, grain forms the majority of world agricultural production, and one-third of that is fed to animals, not humans (for instance, in the United States, 80% of grain production is for livestock [5])—broad calculations of how much agriculture is feeding people is therefore complicated when feeding animals to feed people is factored in.

Organic farms use few pesticides although they are often allowed to use naturally derived ones. On the other hand, conventional farming uses large quantities of pesticides through techniques such as crop dusting. Studies have shown that people who work with pesticides have an increased risk of developing Parkinson's disease.^[16][17] The pesticides examined in these two long-term studies, paraquat and dieldrin, are not allowed on organic farms. The herbicide paraquat and fungicide maneb together, but not alone, have been shown to cause brain damage in mice.^[18] Some organic farming certification standards do allow the use of natural methods of protection from pests such as those derived from plants.^[19] Organic advocates state that natural pesticides are a last resort, while growing healthier, disease-resistant plants, using cover crops and crop rotation, and encouraging beneficial insects and birds are the primary methods of pest control. The most common organic pesticides, accepted for restricted use by most organic standards, include Bt, pyrethrum, and rotenone. [6] Some organic pesticides, such as rotenone, have high toxicity to fish and aquatic creatures with some toxicity to mammals including humans.^{[citation needed]}

Some parents are concerned about the potential neurological health risks posed to children by trace pesticide residues in food. A 2001 study demonstrated that children fed organic diets experienced significantly lower organophosphorus pesticide exposure than children fed conventional diets.^[20] A similar study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure in 23 preschool children before and after replacing their diet with organic food: levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet.^[21] Although the researchers did not collect health outcome data in this study, they concluded "it is intuitive to assume that children whose diets consist of organic food items would have a lower probability of neurologic health risks."

Pesticide runoff is one of the most significant effects of pesticide use. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service tracks the environmental risk posed by pesticide water contamination from farms, and its conclusion has been that "the Nation's pesticide policies during the last twenty six years have succeeded in reducing overall environmental risk, in spite of slight increases in acres planted and pounds of pesticides applied. Nevertheless, there are still areas of the country where there is no evidence of progress, and areas where risk levels for protection of drinking water, fish, algae and crustaceans remain high".^[22]

Main article: Genetically modified organism

A key characteristic of organic farming is rejection of genetically engineered products, including plants and animals. On October 19, 1998, participants at IFOAM's 12th Scientific Conference of IFOAM) issued the Mar del Plata Declaration, where more than 600 delegates from over 60 countries voted unanimously to exclude the use of genetically modified organisms in food production and agriculture. From this point, it became widely recognized that GMOs are categorically excluded from organic farming.

Although GMOs are excluded from use in organic farming, there is concern that the pollen from genetically modified crops is increasingly contaminating organic and heirloom genetics making it difficult, if not impossible, to keep these genetics from entering the organic food supply. International trade restrictions limit the availability GMOs to certain countries.

The actual dangers that genetic modification could pose to the environment or, supposedly, individual health, are hotly contended. See GM food controversy.

Healthy soils equals healthy food equals healthy people is a basic tenet of many organic farming systems.

There is extensive scientific research being carried out in Switzerland at over 200 farms to determine differences in the quality of organic food products compared to conventional in addition to other tests.^[23] The FiBL scientific research institute states that "organic products stand out as having higher levels of secondary plant compounds and vitamin C. In the case of milk and meat, the fatty acid profile is often better from a nutritional point of view. As regards carbohydrates and minerals, organic products are no different from conventional products. As regards undesirable substances such as nitrate and pesticide residues, organic products have a clear advantage.^[23] A recent study found that organically grown produce has double the flavonoids, an important antioxidant.^[24].

A study which isolated clear health benefits from eating organic foods was published in 2007.^[25]

Main article: Soil conservation

The practice of ploughing (see tillage) to prepare soil for planting is claimed to increase soil damage compared to using herbicides, like glyphosates. In fact, this argument applies primarily to large-scale, chemical-based agriculture, where huge areas are repeatedly tilled and planted with the same crops^{[citation needed]}. By using artificial fertilizer rather than replacing organic material, the soil structure is progressively destroyed, and becomes increasingly susceptible to wind and water erosion^{[citation needed]}. Use of herbicides to kill weeds, instead of plowing them under, may present a short-term solution to this problem. However, repeated use of herbicides can disturb the soil microflora and -fauna that contribute to the decomposition of the plant residues that help rebuild the soil organic matter content.^{[citation needed]}. It can also encourage the build-up of resistances in weeds.^{[citation needed]}. Until recently many agricultural scientists thought that no-till farming, a primarily conventional method, was better at building up the soil. However, a recent study by the USDA's Agricultural Research Service has found that organic farming is better at building up the soil.^[26]

Excess nutrients in lakes, rivers, and groundwater can cause algal blooms, eutrophication, and subsequent dead zones. In addition, nitrates are harmful to aquatic organisms by themselves. The main contributor to this pollution is nitrate fertilizers whose use is expected to "double or almost triple by 2050".^[27] Researchers at the United States National Academy of Sciences found that that organically fertilizing fields "significantly reduce harmful nitrate leaching" over conventionally fertilized fields: "annual nitrate leaching was 4.4-5.6 times higher in conventional plots than organic plots".^[28]

Scientists believe that the large dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico is caused in large part by agricultural pollution: a combination of fertilizer runoff and livestock manure runoff. A study by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) found that over half of the nitrogen released into the Gulf comes from agriculture. The economic cost of this for fishermen may be large, as they must travel far from the coast to find fish.^[29]

At the 2000 IFOAM Conference, researchers presented a study of nitrogen leaching into the Danube River. They found that nitrogen runoff was substantially lower among organic farms and suggested that the external cost could be internalized by charging 1 euro per kg of nitrogen released.^[30]

A 2005 study published in Nature found a strong link between agricultural runoff and algae blooms in California.^[31]

Organic agriculture can contribute to meaningful socio-economic and ecologically sustainable development, especially in poorer countries ^[32]. On one hand, this is due to the application of organic principles, which means efficient management of local resources (e.g. local seed varieties, manure, etc.) and therefore cost-effectiveness. On the other hand, the market for organic products – at local and international level – has tremendous growth prospects and offers creative producers and exporters in the South excellent opportunities to improve their income and living conditions.

Organic Agriculture is a very knowledge intensive production system ^[33]. Therefore capacity building efforts play a central role in this regard. There are many efforts all around the world regarding the development of training material and the organization of training courses related to Organic Agriculture. Big parts of existing knowledge is still scattered and not easy accessible. Especially in Developing Countries this situation remains an important constraint for the growth of the organic sector.

For that reason, International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements created an Internet Training Platform ^[7] whose objective is to become the global reference point for Organic Agriculture training through free access to high quality training materials and training programs on Organic Agriculture. In November 2007, the Training Platform hosted more than 170 free manuals and 75 training opportunities.

In Deborah Koons Garcia's film The Future of Food,^[34] it is stated that the American market for organically grown food amounted to $1 billion in 1994, and $13 billion in 2003. A growing consumer market is naturally one of the main factors encouraging farmers to convert to organic agricultural production. Increased consumer awareness of food safety issues and environmental concerns has contributed to the growth in organic farming over the last few years^{[citation needed]}.

There are contentions that organic farming is unsustainable. One study from the Danish Environmental Protection Agency found that, area-for-area, organic farms of potatoes, sugar beet and seed grass produce as little as half the output of conventional farming. ^[35] Findings like these, and the dependence of organic food on manure from low-yield cattle, has prompted criticism from many scientists that organic farming is environmentally unsound and incapable of feeding the world population. ^[36]. Among these critics are Norman Borlaug, father of the "green revolution," and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, who asserts that organic farming practices can at most feed 4 billion people, after expanding cropland dramatically and destroying ecosystems in the process. ^[37]

In 1998, Dennis Avery of the Hudson Institute falsely claimed the risk of E. coli infection was eight times higher when eating organic food rather than non-organic food, using the Center for Disease Control (CDC) as a source. When the CDC was contacted, it stated that there was no evidence for the claim^[38][39]. The New York Times commented on Avery's attacks:"The attack on organic food by a well-financed research organization suggests that, though organic food accounts for only 1 percent of food sales in the United States, the conventional food industry is worried"^[40]

Part of a series on Horticulture and Gardening
Gardening
Gardening • Garden • Botanical garden • Arboretum • Botany • Plant
Horticulture
Horticulture • Agriculture • Urban agriculture • City farm • Organic farming • Herb farm • Hobby farm • Intercropping • Farm
Customs
Harvest festival • Thanksgiving • History of agriculture
Plant protection
Phytopathology • Pesticide • Weed control This box: view • talk • edit

• Organic food
• Organic horticulture
• Certified Naturally Grown
• Industrial agriculture
• Seasonal food
• Permaculture
• Sustainable agriculture

• Kuepper, George and Gegner, Lance. "Organic Crop Production Overview", ATTRA - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service: August 2004.
• Emsley, John (April 2001). "Going One Better Than Nature". Nature 410: 633-634. 
• Paull, John (2006). "The Farm as Organism: The Foundational Idea of Organic Agriculture". Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania 83: 14-18. 
• Smil, Vaclav (2001). Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food. MIT Press. 
• Big Organic Goes Synthetic, The Indypendent

• Gettelman, Elizabeth. "Farmworkers to Farmers", Mother Jones, 2006-08-11. Retrieved on 2007-08-07. -An innovative program in California trains mostly immigrant workers how to succeed as organic farmers.
• Julie Guthman, Agrarian Dreams: The Parodox of Organic Farming in California, Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-520-24094-0
• Lampkin & Padel. (1994). The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective. Guildford: CAB International. ISBN 0-85198-911-X

• EU and U.S. Organic Markets Face Strong Demand Under Different Policies
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations' Organic Agriculture Program

• Organic Farming at the Open Directory Project
• Key adjudication by the Advertising Standards Authority (UK) on claims around organic farming.
• Organic Production and Organic Food: Information Access Tools. Identifies the best sources to research on organic agriculture topics from the Alternative Farming Systems Information Center, National Agricultural Library.
• International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
• World-Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms
• The Organic Consumers Association (US)
• International Society of Organic Agriculture Research
• International Competence Centre for Organic Agriculture (India)
• OCIA International -- Organic Crop Improvement Association (US)
• Research of Organic Agriculture (Switzerland)
• The Soil Association (UK)