From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In psychology and education, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning. There are three main categories (philosophical frameworks) under which learning theories fall behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

Contents 1 Behaviorism 2 Cognitivism 3 Constructivism 4 Informal and post-modern theories 5 Evidence-based learning theories 6 Other interests 7 See also 8 Notes 9 External links

Main article: Behaviorism

Radical Behaviorism is an approach to psychology which supports that learning is the result of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a process both named and investigated by B. F. Skinner. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again; or punishment,which decreases the likelihood of the same behavior recurring in the future. The issues surrounding are relatively complex. For example, a reinforcer or a punisher is defined within behaviorism by its effect on behavior. Therefore a punisher is not considered to be punishment if it does not result in the reduction of a particular behavior. As a result, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior, which is itself a basic premise of the scientific method.

Since the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm was begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. So for example how the natural physiological processes of encoding information into short term memory and long term memory become important to educators.

Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory. These theories of learning are very useful as they guide the Instructional design.

Main article: Constructivism (learning theory)

Main article: Social Constructivism (Learning Theory)

Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. This is also known as knowledge construction as a social process (see social constructivism). We can work to clarify and organize their ideas so we can voice them to others. It gives us opportunities to elaborate on what they learned. We are exposed to the views of others. It enables us to discover flaws and inconsistencies by learning we can get good results. Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.

Informal theories of education deal with more practical breakdown of the learning process. One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. Modern thinkers favour the latter, though without any basis in real world research. Critics believe that trying to teach an overall idea without details (facts) is like trying to build a masonry structure without bricks.

Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learning. To this end, many have split off from the mainstream holding that learning is a primarily self taught thing, and that the ideal learning situation is one that is self taught. According to this dogma, learning at its basic level is all self taught, and class rooms should be eliminated since they do not fit the perfect model of self learning. However, real world results indicate that isolated students fail. Social support seems crucial for sustained learning.

Informal learning theory also concerns itself with book vs real-world experience learning. Many consider most schools severely lacking in the second. Newly emerging hybrid instructional models combining traditional classroom and computer enhanced instruction promise the best of both worlds.

In the 1990s, educators began to question the philosophical framework of Constructivism claiming it was highly theoretical, but not very practical. Instead they began to develop evidence-based learning theories and empirically derived solutions to performance problems. Cognitive theories based on dual coding theory, multimedia learning, and cognitive load theory began to dominate more reputable journals (e.g. Journals of Educational Psychology).

While some educators still profess a constructivist educational philosophy, evidence-based educational reforms like the "No child left behind act" have begun to reshape educational practice to bring accountability to the classroom. Constructivist learning activities are quite useful in settings where learners have some prior knowledge (as in graduate schools) but when dealing with novices (learners in a K-12 environment) these activities tend to be less useful.

Every well-constructed theory of education has at its center a philosophical anthropology.^[1]

• Instructional theory
• Instructional design
• Science, technology, society and environment education
• Andragogical learning theory

About accelerating the learning process

• spaced repetition
• incremental reading

About the mechanisms of memory and learning:

• neural networks in the brain
• sleep and learning
• latent learning
• memory consolidation
• short-term memory versus working memory
• long-term memory
• declarative memory versus procedural memory
• the cerebellum and motor learning

About learning theories related to classroom learning:

• Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 2: The Learning Process

1. ^ Theodora Polito, Educational Theory as Theory of Culture: A Vichian perspective on the educational theories of John Dewey and Kieran Egan Educational Philosophy and Theory, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2005

The external links in this article may not comply with Wikipedia's content policies. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links.

• Creating Learning Centered Classrooms. What Does Learning Theory Have To Say? ERIC Digest.
• How People Learn (and What Technology Might Have To Do with It). ERIC Digest.
• Critical-learning wiki
• Applied Constructivism
• About Learning 12 Learning Theories Described
• Theory Into Practice (TIP) database brief summaries of 50 major theories of learning and instruction
• [1]Theory of Affirmation Teaching
• Folk knowledge and academic learning. In B. J. Ellis & D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.), Origins of the social mind (pp. 493-519). New York: Guilford Publications. A paper from the perspective of evolutionary developmental psychology
• Teaching in a Computer Lab
• Encyclopaedia of Informal Education

v • d • e Standards-based education reform

Theorists: John Dewey • William Spady • Jean Piaget • Benjamin Bloom • Marc Tucker • Maria Montessori Theories: Cognitive load • Standards-based education reform • Outcomes-based education • Developmentally Appropriate Practice • Holism • Constructivism (learning theory) • Block scheduling • Holistic grading • NCEE • Active learning • Problem-based learning • Discovery learning • Inquiry-based science • Inventive spelling • Open-space school • Small schools movement • Inclusion Values: Excellence and equity • Meaningful high school diploma • Standards: National Science Education Standards • National Reading Panel • Standards-based mathematics • National History Standards Federal: No Child Left Behind Act • Goals 2000 • School-to-work transition Assessment: Authentic assessment • Criterion-referenced test • Norm-referenced test • Standards-based assessment State Assessment: AIMS • CLAS • WASL • MCAS Diploma: Certificate of Initial Mastery • High school graduation examination Reading Instruction: Decodable text • Guided reading • Phonics • Whole language Traditional Education: Traditional education • Traditional mathematics • Direct instruction • Decodable text • Rote learning • Grades • Lecture • Tracking (education) • Standard algorithms • Correct answer