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جمهوری اسلامی ايران Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān Islamic Republic of Iran
Flag Emblem
Motto: Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī 1  (Persian) "Independence, freedom, Islamic Republic"
Anthem: Sorūd-e Mellī-e Īrān ²
Capital (and largest city)		Tehran 35°41′N, 51°25′E
Official languages		Persian
Demonym		Iranian
Government		Islamic Republic
-	Supreme Leader	Ayatollah Ali Khamenei
-	President	Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
Unification
-	Unified by Cyrus the Great	559 BCE
-	Parthian (Arsacid) dynastic empire (first reunification)	248 BCE – 224 CE
-	Sassanid dynastic empire	224–651 CE
-	Safavid dynasty (second reunification)	May 1502
-	First Constitution	1906
-	Islamic Revolution	1979
Area
-	Total	1,648,195 km² (18th) 636,372 sq mi
-	Water (%)	0.7
Population
-	2006 (1385 AP) census	70,472,846³ (18th)
-	Density	42/km² (158th) 109/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2006 estimate
-	Total	$610 billion (2006)[1] note: estimates ranges from $602 billion (2006) by IMF[2] to $735 billion (2006) by EIU[3] (19th)
-	Per capita	$8,700 (2006)[1] note: estimates ranges from $8,624 (2006) by IMF[2] to $10,494 (2006) by EIU[3] (74th)
GDP (nominal)		2005 estimate
-	Total	$212.4 billion (32nd)
-	Per capita	$3,046 (92nd)
Gini? (1998)		43.0 (medium)
HDI (2004)		0.746 (medium) (96th)
Currency		Iranian rial (ريال) (IRR)
Time zone		IRST (UTC+3:30)
-	Summer (DST)	not observed (UTC+3:30)
Internet TLD		.ir
Calling code		+98
1	bookrags.com
2	iranchamber.com
3	Statistical Center of Iran. تغییرات جمعیت کشور طی سال‌های ۱۳۳۵-۱۳۸۵ (Persian). Retrieved on 2007-05-16.
4	CIA Factbook

Iran, (Persian: ايران, [iːˈɾɒn] (help·info)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ايران, pronounced [dʒomhuɾije ʔeslɒmije ʔiɾɒn]), formerly known internationally as Persia, is a Southwest Asian country located in the geographical territories of the Middle East, Southern Asia,^[4], Central Asia and the Caucasus. Shi'a Islam is the state religion and Persian the official language.^[5] The 18th largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km², Iran is about the size of United Kingdom, France, Spain and Germany combined. It has a population of over seventy million people. Iran borders Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan to the north; Afghanistan and Pakistan to the east; and Turkey and Iraq to the west. In addition, it borders the Persian Gulf, an important oil-producing area, Gulf of Oman, and the Caspian Sea.

Iran is one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BCE. Throughout history, Iran has been of geostrategic importance because of its central location in Eurasia^[6]. Iran is a founding member of the UN, NAM, OIC, OPEC, ECO, and seeks to join the SCO. The political system of Iran, based on the 1979 Constitution, comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The highest state authority is the Supreme Leader, currently Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. As a a regional power.^[7], Iran occupies an important position in international energy security and world economy due to its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas.^[8]The country is known for its independent stances in the global arena.

The name Iran is a cognate of Aryan, and literally means "Land of the Aryans".^[9][10][11] "Land of Kindness" (سرزمين مهر) is used occasionally as an alternative name for Iran in Persian literature and Iranian media.^[12][13]

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Early history and the Median and Achaemenian Empires (3200 BCE – 330 BCE) 2.2 Parthian and Sassanid Empires (248 BCE – 651 CE) 2.3 From the fall of the Sassanid Dynasty to the Safavid Empire (652–1501 CE) 2.4 Early modern Iran: Safavids, Afshars, Zands and Qajars (1501–1920) 2.5 From the Pahlavi era to the Iranian Revolution (1921–1979) 2.6 Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War (1979–1988) 3 Government and politics 4 Provinces and counties 4.1 Major cities 5 Geography and climate 6 Economy 6.1 Energy 6.2 Industrial production 6.3 Tourism 7 Demography 8 Military 9 Culture 9.1 Language and Literature 9.2 Art 10 Science and technology 11 Sports 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links

Etymology

Main article: Etymology of Iran

See also: Iran naming dispute

The term Iran (ایران) in modern Persian derives from the Proto-Iranian term Aryānām first attested in Zoroastrianism's Avesta tradition.^[14] Ariya- and Airiia- are also attested as an ethnic designator in Achaemenid inscriptions. The term Ērān from Middle Persian Ērān, Pahlavi ʼyrʼn, is found at the inscription that accompanies the investiture relief of Ardashir I at Naqsh-e Rustam.^[15] In this inscription, the king's appellation in Middle Persian contains the term ērān (Pahlavi: ʼryʼn), while in the Parthian language inscription that accompanies it, Iran is mentioned as aryān. In Ardashir's time ērān retained this meaning, denoting the people rather than the state.

Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ērān to refer to the Iranian peoples, the use of ērān to refer to the empire is also attested by the early Sassanid period. An inscription of Shapur I, Ardashir's son and immediate successor, apparently "includes in Ērān regions such as Armenia and the Caucasus which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians."^[16] In Kartir's inscriptions the high priest includes the same regions in his list of provinces of the antonymic Anērān.^[16] Both ērān and aryān comes from the Proto-Iranian term Aryānām, (Land) of the (Iranian) Aryas. The word and concept of Airyanem Vaejah is present in the name of the country Iran (Lit. Land of the Aryans) where Iran (Ērān), is modern-Persian of the word Aryānā.

Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the official name of the country is "Islamic Republic of Iran."

History

Early history and the Median and Achaemenian Empires (3200 BCE – 330 BCE)

Main articles: History of Iran, Zayandeh Rud civilization, Jiroft civilization, Elam, Median Empire, and Achaemenid Empire

See also: Persian Empire

Dozens of pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the 4th millennium BCE^[17][18][19], centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby Mesopotamia.^[20]

The Indo-Iranian branch of the Aryan tribes moved away from their homeland in an early era, probably in more than one wave of emigration. These separated into Proto-Iranians and Proto-Indians. Further separation (due to migration) of Proto-Iranians resulteing in the formation of "Eastern" and a "Western" group, is attested in the form of Avestan, an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of Zoroastrian Avesta. And Old Persian, which appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets, seals of the Achaemenid era (c. 600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in present-day Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Egypt. Nomadic Iranian tribes settled across the Iranian plateau and by the 1st millennium BCE, Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians populated the western part, while Cimmerians, Sarmatians and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea. The Iranian Pashtuns and Baloch began to settle on the eastern edge, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern India and in to what is now Balochistan. Others, such as the Scythian tribes spread as far west as the Balkans and as far east as Xinjiang.

The establishing of the Median dynasty (728–550 BCE) culminated in the first Iranian Empire. The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, the largest of its day, until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians leading to the Achaemenid Empire (648–330 BCE), and further unification between peoples and cultures. After Cyrus's death, his son Cambyses continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, Darius was declared king (ruled 522–486 BCE). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers.

Under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point.^[21] The borders of the Persian empire stretched from the Indus and Oxus Rivers in the East to the Mediterranean Sea in the West, extending through Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and Egypt. In 499BCE Athens lent support to a revolt in Miletus which resulted in the sacking of Sardis. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against Greece known as the Greco-Persian Wars which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC. During the Greco-Persian wars Persia conquered Thrace, Macedonia, then most of the Greek mainland, and razed Athens in 480BCE. But after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw. Fighting ended with the peace of Callias in 449BCE.

The Achaemenid's greatest achievement was the empire itself. The rules and ethics emanating from Zorasters teachings were strictly followed by the Achaemenids who introduced and adopted policies based on human rights, equality and banning of slavery. Zoroastrianism spread unimposed during the time of the Achaemenids and through contacts with the exiled Jewish people in Babylon freed by Cyrus, Zoroastrian concepts further propagated and influenced into other Abrahamic religions. The Golden Age of Athens marked by Aristotle, Plato and Socrates also came about during the Achaemenid period while their contacts with Persia and the Near East abounded. The peace, tranquility, security and prosperity that were afforded to the people of the Near East and Southeastern Europe proved to be a rare historical occurrence, an unparalleled period where commerce prospered, and the standard of living for all people of the region improved.^[22]

Alexander of Macedon invaded Achaemenid territory in 334 BCE, defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE. He left the annexed territory in 328-327.In each of the former Achaemenid territories he installed his own officers as caretakers, which led to friction and ultimately to the partitioning of the former empire after Alexander's death. A reunification would not occur until 700 years later, under the Sassanids (see below). Unlike the diadochic Seleucids and the succeeding Arsacids, who used a vassalary system, the Sassanids — like the Achaemenids — had a system of governors (MP: shahrab) personally appointed by the Emperor and directed by the central government. The new empire led by Alexander became the first, of other, later, foreign ruled Iranian empires that came to promote a Persianate society.

Parthian and Sassanid Empires (248 BCE – 651 CE)

Main articles: Seleucid Empire, Parthian Empire, and Sassanid Empire

See also: Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanians, Roman-Persian Wars, and Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids

Parthia was led by the Arsacid dynasty (اشکانیان Ashkâniân), who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late third century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 150 BCE and 224 CE. These were the third native dynasty of ancient Iran (Persia) and lasted five centuries. After the conquests of Media, Assyria, Babylonia and Elam, the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were Greek, and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed.

Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east, limiting Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). By using a heavily-armed and armored cataphract cavalry, and lightly armed but highly-mobile mounted archers, the Parthians "held their own against Rome for almost 300 years".^[23] Rome's acclaimed general Mark Antony led a disastrous campaign against the Parthians in 36 BCE in which he lost 32,000 men. By the time of Roman emperor Augustus, Rome and Parthia were settling some of their differences through diplomacy. By this time, Parthia had acquired an assortment of golden eagles, the cherished standards of Rome's legions, captured from Mark Antony, and Crassus, who suffered "a disastrous defeat" at Carrhae in 53 BCE.^[24]

The end of the Parthian Empire came in 224 CE, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by Ardashir I, one of the empire's vassals. Ardashir I then went on to create the Sassanid Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily.

The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, referring to it as Erânshahr or Iranshahr, , "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. of Iranians), with their capital at Ctesiphon.^[25] The Romans suffered repeated losses particularly by Ardashir I, Shapur I, and Shapur II.^[26] During their reign, Sassanid battles with the Roman Empire caused such pessimism in Rome that the historian Cassius Dio wrote:

“

Here was a source of great fear to us. So formidable does the Sassanid king seem to our eastern legions, that some are liable to go over to him, and others are unwilling to fight at all.

”

^[27]

In 632AD raiders from the Arab peninsula began attacking the Sassanid Empire Persia was defeated in the Battle of al-Qâdisiyah, paving way for the Islamic conquest of Persia.

During Parthian, and later Sassanid era, trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Indian subcontinent, and Rome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. Parthian remains display classically Greek influences in some instances and retain their oriental mode in others, a clear expression of "the cultural diversity that characterized Parthian art and life".^[28] The Parthians were innovators of many architecture designs such as that of Ctesiphon, which bears resemblance to, and might have influenced, European Romanesque architecture.^[29][30] Under the Sassanids, Persia expanded relations with China, the arts, music, and architecture greatly flourished, and centers such as the School of Nisibis and Academy of Gundishapur became world renowned centers of science and scholarship.

From the fall of the Sassanid Dynasty to the Safavid Empire (652–1501 CE)

Main articles: Islamization in Iran, Abbasid Caliphate, Ilkhanate, Timurid dynasty, Mongol Empire, Khwarezmian Empire, Seljuk dynasty, Buyid Dynasty, and Ghaznavid Empire

After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Persia was annexed into the Arab Umayyad Caliphate. But the Islamization of Iran was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of Persian literature, philosophy, medicine and art became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization. Culturally, politically, and religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance such as the culmination of Persia causing the "Islamic Golden Age".

It was the Persian general Abu Moslem, who expelled the Umayyads from Damascus and helped the Abbasid caliphs to conquer Baghdad. The Abbasid caliphs frequently chose their "wazirs" (viziers) among Persians, and Persian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. Thus in 822 CE, the governor of Khorasan, Tahir, proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of Tahirids. And by the Samanid era, Persia's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.^[31]

Attempts of Arabization thus never succeeded in Iran, and movements such as the Shuubiyah became catalysts for Persians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders. The cultural revival of the post-Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of Persian national identity. The resulting cultural movement reached its peak during the ninth and tenth centuries. The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the Persian language, the language of the Persians and the official language of Iran to the present day. Ferdowsi, Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important figure in maintaining the Persian language.

After an interval of silence Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam. Iranian philosophy after the Islamic conquest, is characterized by different interactions with the Old Iranian philosophy, the Greek philosophy and with the development of Islamic philosophy. The Illumination School and the Transcendent Philosophy are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia.

The movement continued well into the eleventh century, when Mahmud-a Ghaznavi founded a vast empire, with its capital at Isfahan and Ghazna. Their successors, the Seljuks, asserted their domination from the Mediterranean Sea to Central Asia. As with their predecessors, the divan of the empire was in the hands of Persian viziers, who founded the Nizamiyya. During this period, hundreds of scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during the Renaissance.^[32]

In 1218, the eastern Khwarazmid provinces of Transoxiana and Khorasan suffered a devastating invasion by Genghis Khan. During this period more than half of Persia's population were killed,^[33] turning the streets of Persian cities like Neishabur into "rivers of blood", as the severed heads of men, women, and children were "neatly stacked into carefully constructed pyramids around which the carcasses of the city's dogs and cats were placed".^[34] Between 1220 and 1260, the total population of Persia had dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine.^[35] In a letter to King Louis IX of France, Holaku, one of the Genghis Khan's grandsons, alone took responsibility for 200,000 deaths in his raids of Persia and the Caliphate.^[36] He was followed by yet another conqueror, Tamerlane, who established his capital in Samarkand.^[37] The waves of devastation prevented many cities such as Neishabur from reaching their pre-invasion population levels until the twentieth century, eight centuries later.^[38] But both Hulagu, Timur, and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of that which they had conquered, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.^[39]

Early modern Iran: Safavids, Afshars, Zands and Qajars (1501–1920)

Main articles: Safavid Empire, Qajar dynasty, Afsharid dynasty, and Zand dynasty

See also: Russo-Persian Wars, Anglo-Persian War, and Turko-Persian War

Persia's first encompassing Shi'a Islamic state was established under the Safavid dynasty in 1501 by Shah Ismail I. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major political power and promoted the flow of bilateral state contacts. The Safavid peak was during the rule of "Shah Abbas The Great".^[40] The Shah swiftly moved to defeat the Uzbeks, Ottomans, and Portuguese, bringing a flow of prosperity into Iranian cities. The Safavids moved their capital from Tabriz to Qazvin and then to Isfahan where their patronage for the arts propelled Persia into one of its most aesthetically productive eras. Under their rule, the state became highly centralized, the first attempts to modernize the military were made, and even a distinct style of architecture developed.

The defeat of Shah Sultan Hossein by Afghan rebels marked the start of the downfall of the Safavid era in 1722. One year later the last Safavid monarch lost his throne in 1735, Nader Shah successfully drove out the Afghan rebels from Isfahan and established the Afsharid dynasty. He then staged an incursion into India in 1738 securing the Peacock throne, Koh-i-Noor, and Darya-ye Noor among other royal treasures. His rule did not last long however, and he was assassinated in 1747. The Mashhad based Afshar dynasty was succeeded by the Zand dynasty in 1750, founded by Karim Khan, who established his capital at Shiraz. His rule brought a period of relative peace and renewed prosperity.

The Zand dynasty lasted three generations, until Aga Muhammad Khan executed Lotf Ali Khan, and founded his new capital in Tehran, marking the dawn of the Qajar dynasty in 1794. The capable Qajar chancellor Amir Kabir established Iran's first modern college system, among other modernizing reforms. Mohammad Khan Qajars successors however gradually transformed Iran into an arena for the rising colonial powers of Imperial Russia and the British Empire, which wielded great political influence in Tehran under the subsequent Qajarid kings. Yet in spite of The Great Game, Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighboring states in the region. Persia suffered several wars with Imperial Russia during the Qajar era, resulting in Persia losing almost half of its territories to Imperial Russia and the British Empire via the treaties of Gulistan, Turkmenchay, and Akhal. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to various protests, which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in Persia's constitutional revolution establishing the nation's first parliament in 1906, within a constitutional monarchy.

From the Pahlavi era to the Iranian Revolution (1921–1979)

Main articles: Pahlavi dynasty, Iranian Constitutional Revolution, and 1953 Iranian coup d'état

With the rise of modernization and encroachment of stronger Western powers in the late nineteenth century came the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911. Reformers hoped the constitution would strengthen Iran against Imperial Russia and Britain by centralizing and modernizing it. Ultimately the constitution became law, but its provisions were seldom followed during most of its history.

In 1921, an army officer Reza Khan of Mazandarani and Persian descent (known as Reza Shah after assuming the throne) staged a coup against the weakened Qajar dynasty. An autocrat and supporter of modernization, Reza Shah initiated the development of modern industry, railroads, and establishment of a national education system. Reza Shah sought to balance the influence of Russia and Britain by seeking out assistance and technology from European powers traditionally not involved in Iranian affairs, but when World War II started his closeness to Germany alarmed allied powers Russia and Britain, Germany's enemies.

In summer of 1941 Britain and the USSR invaded Iran to prevent Iran from allying with the Axis powers. The Allies occupied Iran, securing a supply line to Russia, Iran's petroleum infrastructure, and forced the Shah to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1951, a nationalist politician, Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh rose to prominence in Iran and was elected Prime Minister. As Prime Minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran by nationalizing the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later British Petroleum, BP) which controlled the country's oil reserves. In response, Britain embargoed Iranian oil and began plotting to depose Mossadegh. Members of the British Intelligence Service invited the United States to join them, convincing U.S. President Eisenhower that Mossadegh was reliant on the Tudeh (Communist) Party to stay in power. In 1953, President Eisenhower authorized Operation Ajax, and the CIA took the lead in overthrowing Mossadegh and supporting a U.S.-friendly monarch; and for which the U.S. Government apologized in 2000.^[41]

The CIA faced many setbacks, but the covert operation soon went into full swing, conducted from the U.S. Embassy in Tehran under the leadership of Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. Iranians were hired to protest Mossadegh and fight pro-Mossadegh demonstrators. Anti- and pro-monarchy protestors violently clashed in the streets, leaving almost three hundred dead. The operation was successful in triggering a coup, and within days, pro-Shah tanks stormed the capital and bombarded the Prime Minister's residence. Mossadegh surrendered, and was arrested on 19 August 1953. He was tried for treason, and sentenced to three years in prison.

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi returned to power greatly strengthened and his rule became increasingly autocratic in the following years. With strong support from the U.S. and UK, the Shah further modernized Iranian industry, but simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, SAVAK. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an active critic of the Shah's White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General Hassan Pakravan. Khomeini was sent first to Turkey, then to Iraq and finally to France. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah.

Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War (1979–1988)

Main articles: Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War

The Iranian Revolution (also known as the Islamic Revolution)^[42][43][44] transformed Iran from a monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic.^[45]

The revolution began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the Shah.^[46] After strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, the Shah fled the country in January 1979. On February 1, 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran, enthusiastically greeted by millions of Iranians.^[47] The Pahlavi dynasty collapsed ten days later on February 11 when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979 when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so.^[48] In December 1979 the country approved a theocratic constitution, whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country. The speed and success of the revolution surprised many throughout the world,^[49] as it had not been precipitated by a military defeat, a financial crisis, or a peasant rebellion.^[50] It produced profound change at great speed.^[51] It overthrew a regime thought to be heavily protected by a lavishly financed army and security services.^[52][53] And it replaced a monarchy with a theocracy based on Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (or velayat-e faqih). Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, it ultimately resulted in an Islamic Republic Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.^[54]

Iran's relations with the United States became deeply antagonistic during the revolution. On November 4, 1979, Iranian students seized US embassy personnel, labeling the embassy a "den of spies."^[55] They accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. While the student ringleaders had not asked for permission from Khomeini to seize the embassy, Khomeini nonetheless supported the embassy takeover after hearing of its success.^[56] While most of the female and African American hostages were released within the first months,^[57] the remaining fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days. This is often considered a violation of the long-standing principle of international law that diplomats are immune from arrest (diplomatic immunity). The students demanded the handover of the Shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Subsequently attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate or rescue were unsuccessful until January 1981 when the Algiers declaration was agreed upon. The U.S. promised (among other things) in the accord to release Iranian assets that had been frozen, but as of 2007 those assets still remain frozen.^{[citation needed]}

Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He also sought to expand Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was Khuzestan which not only boasted a substantial Arab population, but rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the United Arab Emirates, the islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On September 22, 1980 the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran-Iraq War. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.

Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.

Tens of thousands of Iranian civilians and military personnel were killed when Iraq used chemical weapons in its warfare. Iraq was financially backed by Egypt, the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact states, the United States (beginning in 1983), France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Brazil, and the People's Republic of China (which also sold weapons to Iran).

There were more than 100,000 Iranian victims^[58] of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian human wave attacks; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.^{[59][60][61][62]}

See also: History of the Islamic Republic of Iran

Government and politics

Main articles: Politics and Government of Iran, Foreign relations of Iran, Supreme Leader of Iran, President of Iran, Majlis of Iran, Council of Guardians, Expediency Discernment Council, Judicial system of Iran, Assembly of Experts, and City and Village Councils of Iran

The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution. The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for delineation and supervision of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran". The Supreme Leader is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the Council of Guardians are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.^[63] The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties.

After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority. The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution. The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-one ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence. Iran's current president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, was elected in a run-off poll in the 2005 presidential elections. His term expires in 2009.

The current legislature of Iran is a unicameral body. Before the Iranian Revolution, the legislature was bicameral, but the upper house was removed under the new constitution. The Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami (Islamic Consultative Assembly) comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Council of Guardians. The Council of Guardians comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the Parliament from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary. The Council interprets the constitution and may veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.

The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.

The Supreme Leader appoints the head of Iran's Judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.

The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the Council of Guardians determines candidates' eligibility. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.

Finally, Local City Councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.

Iran's foreign relations are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the United Nations, except for Israel, which Iran does not recognize, and the United States since the Iranian Revolution. ^[64] The United Nations Security Council imposed international sanctions on Iran in December 2006 for not suspending its uranium enrichment programme having been instructed to do so after being assessed as failing to meet Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty safeguard obligations. Despite the U.N. security council resolutions, Iran has in practice faced a wide variety of U.S. imposed international sanctions since 1979.^[65]

Provinces and counties

Main articles: Provinces of Iran and Counties of Iran

Iran is divided into 30 provinces (ostān), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties (shahrestān), and subdivided into districts (bakhsh) and sub-districts (dehestān).

The map does not show the southern islands of Hormozgan (#20 listed below):

1. Tehran 2. Qom 3. Markazi 4. Qazvin 5. Gīlān 6. Ardabil 7. Zanjan 8. East Azarbaijan    9. West Azarbaijan 10. Kurdistan

11. Hamadān 12. Kermanshah 13. Īlām 14. Lorestān 15. Khūzestān 16. Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari 17. Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad    18. Bushehr 19. Fārs 20. Hormozgān

21. Sistān and Baluchestān    22. Kermān 23. Yazd 24. Isfahan 25. Semnān 26. Māzandarān 27. Golestān 28. North Khorasan 29. Razavi Khorasan 30. South Khorasan

Major cities

Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.^[66] The United Nations predicts that by 2030 the urban population will form 80% of the overall population.^{[citation needed]} Most of the internal migrants have settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom. The listed populations are from the 2006/2007 (1385 AP) census.^[67]

Tehran (population 7,705,036) Tehran is the capital and largest city of Iran and like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution. Tehran is the hub of the country's communication and transport network. The city has numerous large museums, art centers, palace complexes and cultural centers and host 45% of Iran's industries.

Mashhad (population 2,410,800) Mashhad (also spelt Mashad, literally "The place of martyrdom"), is located 850 kilometers (500 miles) east of Tehran, and is one of the holiest Shi'a cities in the world as it is the site of the shrine of Imam Reza, 8th Shia Imam. It is the second largest city with a population of 2.8 million at the center of the province of Razavi Khorasan. It's the center of tourism in Iran and between 15 and 20 million pilgrims go to the Imam Reza's shrine every year.^[68][69]

Isfahan (population 1,583,609) Isfahan or Eşfahān, located about 340 km south of Tehran, is the capital of Isfahan Province and Iran's third largest city.

The Naghsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The city also contains a wide variety of Islamic architectural sites ranging from the eleventh to the nineteenth century.

Tabriz (population 1,378,935) Tabriz is the largest city in north-western Iran and is the capital of East Azarbaijan Province. Tabriz is situated north of the volcanic cone of Sahand south of the Eynali mountain.

Karaj (population 1,377,450) Karaj is located in Tehran province and is situated 20 km west of Tehran, at the foot of Alborz mountains, however the city is increasingly becoming an extension of the metropolitan Tehran.

Shiraz (population 1,204,882) Shiraz is the capital of Fārs Province and is located in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains. Shiraz is known as the city of poetry, wine and carpet production and flowers (such as roses). It is also famous for its importance in the history of Iran. It has a moderate climate and has been a regional trade center for more than a thousand years.

Ahvaz (population 969,843) The city of Ahvaz, is the capital of the Iranian province of Khūzestān. It is built on the banks of the Karun River and is situated in the middle of Khūzestān Province. The city has an average elevation of 20 meters above sea level.

Qom (population 951,918) Qom (also known as Q'um or Kom) lies 97 miles (156 km) by road south-west of Tehran and is the capital of Qom Province and is built on the banks of the Qom (River) and is considered to be a holy city in Shi`a Islam, as it is the site of the shrine of Fatema Mæ'sume, sister of Imam `Ali ibn Musa Rida (Persian Imam Reza, 789–816 CE). The city is the largest center for Shi'a scholarship in the world, and is a significant destination of pilgrimage.

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Iran

See also: Agriculture in Iran and Wildlife of Iran

Iran is the eighteenth largest country in the world after Libya and before Mongolia;^[70] Its area roughly equals the size of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined, about one-sixth the size of the United States or slightly smaller, in land mass, than the state of Alaska.^[71][72] Its borders are with Azerbaijan (432 km/268 mi) and Armenia (35 km/22 mi) to the northwest; the Caspian Sea to the north; Turkmenistan (992 km/616 mi) to the northeast; Pakistan (909 km/565 mi) and Afghanistan (936 km/582 mi) to the east; Turkey (499 km/310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km/906 mi) to the west; and finally the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south. Iran's area is 1,648,000 km² (approximately 636,300  mi² )

Most of Iran is situated on the Iranian Plateau with the exception of the coast of the Caspian Sea and Khuzestan. Iran is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros and Alborz Mountains; the latter contains Iran's highest point, Mount Damavand at 5,604 m (18,386 ft), which is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the Hindu Kush. The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins like the saline Dasht-e Kavir, Iran's largest desert, located in the north-central portion of the country, and the Dasht-e Lut, in the east, as well as some salt lakes. This is because the mountain ranges are too high for rain clouds to reach these regions. Except for some scattered oases, such as Tabas, these deserts are uninhabited.

The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab (or the Arvand Rūd) river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Sea of Oman.

Iran's climate is mostly arid or semiarid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84 °F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (27 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (67 in) in the western part. To the west, settlements in the Zagros Mountains basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters, sub-freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (eight in) of rain and have occasional desert. Average summer temperatures exceed 38 °C (100 °F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (five to fourteen inches).

Economy

Main article: Economy of Iran

See also: Next Eleven, Central Bank of Iran, Tehran Stock Exchange, Economic Cooperation Organization, Transport in Iran, Communications in Iran, and Construction in Iran

Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.^[73] Its economic infrastructure has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by inflation and unemployment.^[74] In the early twenty-first century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture. About 45 percent of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31 percent came from taxes and fees. Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14 percent in the period 2000–2004. In 2006 the GDP was estimated at $193.5 billion ($599.2 billion at PPP), or $2,440 per capita ($8,700 at PPP).^[1] Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semi-developed.

The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Thanks to the construction of many dams throughout the country in recent years, large-scale irrigation schemes, and the wider production of export-based agricultural items like dates, flowers, and pistachios, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the 1990s. Although successive years of severe drought in 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 have held back output growth substantially, agriculture remains one of the largest employers, accounting for 22% of all jobs according to the 1991 census.

Iran's major commercial partners are China, Germany, South Korea, France, Japan, Russia and Italy. Since the late 1990s, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including Syria, India, Cuba, Venezuela, and South Africa. Iran is also expanding its trade ties with Turkey and Pakistan and shares with its partners the common goal of creating a single economic market in West and Central Asia, much like the European Union called ECO. Iran also expects to attract billions of dollars of foreign investment by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced restrictions and duties on imports, and free-trade zones in Chabahar, Qeshm and Kish Island.

The current administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. It is attempting to do this by investing revenues in areas like automobile manufacturing, aerospace industries, consumer electronics, petrochemicals and nuclear technology. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry.^[75] The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to large-scale state subsidies, totaling more than $40 billion per year, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline.^[76]

Energy

Main articles: Energy in Iran, Ministry of Petroleum of Iran, and Nuclear programme of Iran

Iran ranks second in the world in natural gas reserves and third in oil reserves.^[77] In 2005, Iran spent US$4 billion dollars on fuel imports, because of contraband and inefficient domestic use.^[78] Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day in 2005, compared with the peak of 6 million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry infrastructure was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory wells were drilled in 2005.

In 2004, a large share of Iran’s natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal- and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75 percent was based on natural gas, 18 percent on oil, and 7 percent on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant is to come online in 2009. Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8 percent per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants and by adding hydroelectric, and nuclear power generating capacity. Iran’s first nuclear power plant at Bushehr was not online by 2007.^[79]

Industrial production

See also: Privatization in Iran and Foreign Direct Investment in Iran

The authorities so as the private sector have put in the past 15 years an emphasis on the local production of domestic-consumption oriented goods such as home appliances, cars, agricultural products, pharmaceutical, etc. Today, Iran possesses a good manufacturing industry, despite restrictions imposed by foreign countries. However, all nationalized industries such as the bonyads have often been managed in the worse way, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Today, the government is trying to privatize these industries, such as Damavand Mineral water company or some down stream industries of the National Iranian Oil Company, and despite some successes, there are still several problems to be overcome such as the lagging corruption with the public sector (and therefore, nationalized industries) and lack of competitiveness.

Globally, Iran has leading manufacture industry in the fields of car-manufacture and transportations, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology and petrochemicals.

Tourism

See also: Iran travel guide from Wikitravel

The tourist industry declined dramatically during the war with Iraq in the 1980s but has subsequently revived. The majority of the 300,000 tourist visas granted in 2003 were obtained by Asian Muslims, who presumably intended to visit important pilgrimage sites in Mashhad and Qom. About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004; most came from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while a small share came from the countries of the European Union and North America. Several organized tours from Germany, France, and other European countries come to Iran annually to visit archaeological sites and monuments. The government reported that in 2004 some 4 million tourists, including over 2 million Iranians on vacation, spent nearly US$2 billion in Iran, an increase of 10 percent over 2003. However, in the early 2000s the industry still faced serious limitations in infrastructure, communications, regulatory norms, and personnel training.^[80]

Iran currently ranks 68th in tourism revenues worldwide. Iran with attractive natural and historical sites is rated among the 10 most touristic countries in the world. Close to 1.8 percent of national employment is generated in the tourism sector which is slated to increase to 10 percent in the next five years.^[81] Iranian hospitality is one of the unique and distinctive features of its people.

Demography

Main articles: Demography of Iran, Iranian peoples, Iranians (citizens of Iran), Health care in Iran, and Iranian citizens abroad

Iran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and ethnic backgrounds cemented by the Persian culture. Persians, the founders of Ancient Persia, constitute the majority of the population. Seventy percent of present-day Iranians are Iranic peoples, native speakers of Indo-European languages who are descended from the Aryan (Indo-Iranians) tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran in the second millennium BCE. The majority of the population speaks one of the Iranian languages, in addition to the official language, Persian. The main ethnic groups are Persians (51%), Azeris (24%), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8%), Kurds (7%), Arabs (3%), Baluchi (2%), Lurs (2%), Turkmens (2%), Laks, Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, Tats, Pashtuns, Mandaeans, Gypsies, Brahuis, Hazare and others (1%).^[1]

Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the twentieth century, reaching about 70 million by 2006. In recent years, however, Iran's birth rate has dropped significantly.^[82] Studies show that Iran's rate of population growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes, by the year 2050, above 90 million.^[83][84] More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and the literacy rate is 79%.^[1]

The number of Iranian citizens abroad is estimated at some four million people who emigrated to North America, Europe, and Australia, mostly during the Iran-Iraq war in the 1980s. Iran also hosts one of the largest refugee population in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq. Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the UNHCR and Afghan officials for their repatriation.^[85]

Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the Shi'a branch of Islam, the official state religion, and about 8% belong to the Sunni branch, mainly Kurds and Iran's Balochi Sunni. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, including Bahá'ís, Mandeans, Hindus, Sikhs, Yezidis, Yarsanis, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians.^[1] The latter three minority religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the Majles (Parliament). However the Bahá'í Faith, Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution of Bahá'ís has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment.^[86][87] Currently, the Islamic Republic of Iran is noted for significant human rights violations, despite efforts by human right activists, writers, NGOs and some political parties. Human rights violations include governmental impunity, restricted freedom of speech, gender inequality, treatment of homosexuals, execution of minors, and in some cases torture.^[88]

According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to social security that covers retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services. This is covered by public revenues and income derived from public contributions. The World Health Organization in the last report on health systems ranks Iran's performance on health level 58th, and its overall health system performance 93rd among the world's nations.^[89]

Military

Main articles: Military of Iran and Iranian defense industry

See also: Military history of Iran

The Islamic Republic of Iran has two kinds of armed forces: the regular forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army, Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, Islamic Republic of Iran Navy and the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), totalling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totalling around 900,000 trained troops.^[90]

Iran also has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service; GlobalSecurity.org estimates Iran could mobilize "up to 1 million men". This would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world.^[91]

Iran's military capabilities are kept largely secret. Since 1992, it has produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, guided missiles, submarines, and fighter planes.^[92] In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Fajr-3 (MIRV), Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3 missiles, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).

The Fajr-3 (MIRV) is currently Iran's most advanced ballistic missile. It is a domestically-developed and produced liquid fuel missile with an unknown range. The IRIS solid-fuelled missile is a program which is supposed to be Iran's first missile to bring satellites into orbit. In 2005, Iran's military spending represented 3.3% of the GDP or $91 per capita, the lowest figure of the Persian Gulf nations.^[93] Iran's military doctrine is to defend its territorial integrity only.^[94]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Iran

See also: Cinema of Iran and Iranian cuisine

Iran, or Persia, as a historical entity, dates to the time of the Achaemenids. Daily life in modern Iran is closely interwoven with Shia Islam and the country's art, literature, and architecture are an ever-present reminder of its deep national tradition and of a broader literary culture.^[95] Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the Middle East and Central Asia, with Persian considered the language of intellectuals during much of the second millennium CE, and the language of religion and the populace before that.

The Iranian New Year (Norouz) is an ancient tradition celebrated on March 21 to mark the beginning of spring in Iran, Afghanistan, Albania, Georgia, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan.^[96] and also by Kurds in Turkey and Iraq.^[97] Norouz was nominated as one of UNESCO's Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2004.^[98]

The Sassanid era was an important and influential historical periods in Iran Their cultural influenced Roman civilization considerably^[99] and so influencing as far as Western Europe,^[100] Africa,^[101] China and India^[102] and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.^[103] This influence carried forward to the Islamic world. Most of what later became known as Islamic learning, such as philology, literature, jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine, architecture and the sciences were some of the practises taken from the Sassanid Persians in to the broader Muslim world.^[104][105]

After the Arab invasion Islamic rituals have penetrated in the Iranian culture. The most noticeable one of them is commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali. Every year in Day of Ashura most of Iranians even Armenians and Zoroastrians participate in mourning for the martyrs of battle of Karbala. The commemoration of Karbala has permeated all of Persian culture and finds expression in poetry, music, and the solemn Shia view of the world.^[106]

The cuisine of Iran is diverse, with each province featuring dishes, as well as culinary traditions and styles, distinct to their region. Iranian food is not spicy. Most meals consist of a large serving of seasoned rice and an accompanying course, typically consists of meat, poultry, or fish. Herbs are used frequently. Onions and garlic are normally used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form.

Iranian cinema has thrived in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years. One of the best-known directors is Abbas Kiarostami. The Media of Iran is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. State censorship is often brought upon films which do not meet approval. The Internet has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of bloggers.^[107] Women today compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country and increasingly continue to play pivotal roles in society.

Language and Literature

Main articles: Persian language, History of the Persian language, and Persian literature

See also: music of Iran and Persian miniature

Many Languages have originated from Iran such as Mazandarani and Gilaki but Persian is the most used language. Persian is a tongue belonging to the Aryan or Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The oldest records in Old Persian date back to the great Persian Empire of the 6th century BCE.^[108] Since then it has changed significantly, being greatly influenced by Arabic after the conquest of Persia. In the late 8th century the Persian language was highly Arabized and in Arabic script. This caused a movement supporting the revival of Persian. An important event of this revival was the writing of the Shahname by Ferdowsi (Persian: Epic of Kings), Iran's national epic, entirely in native Persian. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part responsible for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language.

“

بسی رنج بردم در این سال سی عجم زنده کردم بدین پارسی For thirty years, I suffered much pain and strife with Persian I gave the Ajam verve and life

”

—Ferdowsi (935–1020)

Persian beside Arabic has been a medium for literary and scientific contributions to the Islamic world especially in Anatolia, central Asia and Indian sub-continent.

Poetry is a very important part of Persian culture. Poetry is used in many classical works, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. For example about half of Avicenna's medical writings are known to be versified. Iran has produced a number of famous poets, however only a few names such as Rumi and Omar Khayyám have surfaced among western popular readership, even though the likes of Hafez and Saadi are considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. The books of famous poets have been translated into western languages since 1634. An example of Persian poetic influence is the poem below which is inscribed on the entrance of United Nations' Hall of Nations.

بنى آدم اعضاء يک پیکرند
که در آفرينش ز يک گوهرند
چو عضوى بدرد آورد روزگار
دگر عضوها را نماند قرار
"Of one Essence is the human race
thus has Creation put the base,
One Limb impacted is sufficient
For all Others to feel the Mace."—Saadi

Art

Main articles: Iranian architecture and Iranian art

The Iranian Cultural Continent is home to one of the richest art heritages in world history and encompasses many disciplines including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking and stone masonry. The art of carpet weaving in Iran has its roots in the culture and customs of its people and their instinctive feelings. Weavers mix elegant patterns with a myriad of colors.

Persians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry, and astronomy in architecture and also have extraordinary skills in making massive domes which can be seen frequently in the structure of bazaars and mosques. The main building types of classical Iranian architecture are the mosque and the palace. Iran, beside being home to a large number of art houses and galleries also hold one of the largest and valuable jewel collections in the world as Iranian Crown Jewels.

Iran ranks 7th among countries in the world with the most archeological architectural ruins and attractions from antiquity as recognized by UNESCO.^[109] Fifteen of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites are creations of Iranian architecture and the mausoleum of Maussollos was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Science and technology

Main article: Science in Iran

See also: Education in Iran and Higher education in Iran

Science in Iran, as the country itself, has a considerable history. From the Qanat to the Yakhchal, to the windmill. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of astronomy, nature, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī is sometimes considered (along with Diophantus) as the "father of Algebra". The isolation of ethanol (alcohol) as a pure compound was first achieved by Persian alchemists. Throughout the Middle Ages, the natural philosophy and mathematics of the ancient Greeks and Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. During this period, Persia became a center for the manufacture of scientific instruments, retaining its reputation for quality well into the nineteenth century.

Iran strives to revive the golden age of Persian science. The country has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by China.^[110]

Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, Iranian scientists remain highly productive in several experimental fields as pharmacology, pharmaceutical chemistry, organic chemistry, and polymer chemistry. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the Compact Muon Solenoid, a detector for CERN's Large Hadron Collider due to come online in May 2008.

In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics is a UNESCO chair in biology,^[111] and in late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research center in Isfahan.^[112]

The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran's current facilities includes several research reactors, a uranium mine, an almost complete commercial nuclear reactor, and uranium processing facilities that include a uranium enrichment plant. The Iranian Space Agency launched its first reconnaissance satellite named Sina-1 in 2006, and a "space rocket" in 2007,^[113] which aimed at improving science and research for university students.^[114]

Iranian scientists are a significant portion of the international scientific community. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser, along with American physicist William R. Bennett, Jr. In 1965, fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi Zadeh^[115]. Iranian cardiologist, Tofy Mussivand invented the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart, and developed it further afterwards. HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar and introduced to the medical community, thereby furthering research and treatment of Diabetes. Iranian physics is especially strong in string theory, with many papers being published in Iran.^[116] Iranian-American string theorist Cumrun Vafa proposed the Vafa-Witten theorem together with Edward Witten. The KPZ equation in theoretical physics was named after Mehran Kardar, a notable Iranian physicist.

Sports

Main article: Sports in Iran

With two thirds of Iran's population under the age of 25, sports constitutes a highly active portion of Iran's society, both traditional and modern. Iran hence was the birthplace of sports such as polo,^[117] backgammon,^[118] and Varzesh-e Pahlavani.

Freestyle Wrestling is traditionally referred to as Iran's national sport. Former WWF champion Iron Sheik wrestled as an amateur in Iran before moving to the United States but today, the most popular sport in Iran is football (soccer), with national team being a World Cup finalist three times, having won the Asian Cup on three occasions and was the first country in the Middle East to host the Asian Games. Iran is home to several unique skiing resorts,^[119] with the Tochal resort being the world's fifth-highest ski resort (3,730 m at its highest station) situated only fifteen minutes away from Tehran. Being a mountainous country, Iran offers enthusiasts abundant challenges for hiking, rock climbing,^[120] and mountain climbing.^{[121][122][123]}

Women are also active in sports, primarily in volleyball and badminton and even rallying. Female drivers participate in national rally tournaments, such as the famous driver Laleh Seddigh.

References

Further reading

• Benjamin Walker, Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran, Arya Press, Calcutta, 1950.
• Michael Barker, Catalyst for Iranian Resistance: U.S. “democracy promoters” and regime change in Iran, Znet, 18 December 2006.

External links

Find more information on Iran by searching Wikipedia's sister projects
	Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary
	Textbooks from Wikibooks
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Images and media from Commons
	News stories from Wikinews
	Learning resources from Wikiversity

Government

• Official website of the President of Iran
• The blog of the President of Iran
• (Persian) Official website of the Council of Guardians of Iran
• (Persian) Official website of the Majlis (Legislature) of Iran
• Official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
• Official website of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran
• BBC guide to political power structure in Iran
• Official website of the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization
• (Persian) Official website of Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting

Other

• Iran Map with details Iran Map and Iran Major Cites Maps
• Aryo.ir A wide Range of Classified Photos From Different Provinces of Iran
• Footage showing ethnic and religious groups in Iran
• Iran travel guide from Wikitravel
• Slideshow: Iran, from Damavand to Ispahan
• Encyclopaedia Britannica's Country Page — "Iran"
• Open Directory Project — Iran directory category
• BBC News interactive maps detailing Iran's people, land and infrastructure
• Uncovering Iran season onBBC Radio 4
• Iran an article by Encyclopædia Iranica
• Iran travel information and pictures
• Iran Cultural Heritage Organization
• Iran An article by Encyclopedia Britannica Online
• Ancient Iran An article by Encyclopedia Britannica Online
• Photos from Iran: Livius.

Iranian news and media

• List of Iranian news and media from the Open Directory Project
• Yahoo! News Full Coverage Iran Yahoo headline links
• Guardian section about Iran
• PRESS TV — 24 hour news channel in English

Geographic locale

v • d • e Countries and territories of the Middle East Bahrain · Egypt · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Jordan · Kuwait · Lebanon · Oman · Palestinian territories · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Syria · United Arab Emirates · Yemen Sometimes included:  Afghanistan • Algeria • Cyprus • Libya • Morocco • Pakistan • Tunisia • Turkey • Western Sahara v • d • e Countries of Southwest Asia Armenia · Azerbaijan · Bahrain · Cyprus · Georgia · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Jordan · Kuwait · Lebanon · Oman · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Syria · Turkey · United Arab Emirates · Yemen v • d • e Countries of Asia Afghanistan · Armenia · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Bhutan · Brunei · Burma · Cambodia · China, People's Republic of · China, Republic of (Taiwan)2 · Cyprus · Egypt3 · Georgia1 · India · Indonesia4 · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan1 · Korea, Democratic People's Republic of · Korea, Republic of · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives · Mongolia · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia1 · Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Thailand · Timor-Leste (East Timor)4 · Turkey1 · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates · Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen3 For dependent and other territories, see Dependent territory and List of unrecognized countries. 1 Partly or significantly in Europe.  2 The Republic of China (Taiwan) is not officially recognized by the United Nations; see Political status of Taiwan. 3 Partly or significantly in Africa.  4 Partly or wholly reckoned in Oceania. v • d • e Countries bordering the Caspian Sea  Azerbaijan  ·    Iran  ·    Kazakhstan  ·    Russia  ·    Turkmenistan v • d • e Countries bordering the Persian Gulf  Bahrain  Iran  Iraq  Kuwait  Oman  Qatar  Saudi Arabia  United Arab Emirates v • d • e Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean Africa Comoros · Djibouti · Eritrea · Kenya · Madagascar · Mauritius · Mayotte · Mozambique · Seychelles · Somalia · Somaliland · South Africa · Sudan · Tanzania Asia Bahrain · Bangladesh · Burma · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands · India · Indonesia · Iran · Iraq · Kuwait · Malaysia · Maldives · Oman · Pakistan · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Sri Lanka · Thailand · United Arab Emirates · Yemen Oceania Australia · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands Islands Bahrain · British Indian Ocean Territory · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands · Madagascar · Maldives · Mauritius · Mayotte · Seychelles · Sri Lanka

International membership

v • d • e Developing 8 Countries (D8)  Bangladesh  ·    Egypt  ·    Indonesia  ·    Iran  ·    Malaysia  ·    Nigeria  ·    Pakistan  ·    Turkey v • d • e Group of Fifteen (G15)  Algeria  Argentina  Brazil  Chile  Egypt  India  Indonesia  Iran  Jamaica  Kenya  Malaysia  Mexico  Nigeria  Peru  Senegal  Sri Lanka  Venezuela  Zimbabwe v • d • e Member states and observers of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Members Afghanistan · Albania · Algeria · Azerbaijan · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Benin · Burkina Faso · Brunei · Cameroon · Chad · Comoros · Côte d'Ivoire · Djibouti · Egypt · Gabon · Gambia · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Guyana · Indonesia · Iran · Iraq · Jordan · Kuwait · Kazakhstan · Kyrgyzstan · Lebanon · Libya · Maldives · Malaysia · Mali · Mauritania · Morocco · Mozambique · Niger · Nigeria · Oman · Pakistan · Palestine · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Senegal · Sierra Leone · Somalia · Sudan · Suriname · Syria · Tajikistan · Turkey · Tunisia · Togo · Turkmenistan · Uganda · Uzbekistan · United Arab Emirates · Yemen Observers Countries and territories Bosnia and Herzegovina · Central African Republic · Russia · Thailand · Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (only recognised by Turkey) Muslim communities Moro National Liberation Front International organizations Economic Cooperation Organization · African Union · Arab League · Non-Aligned Movement · United Nations v • d • e Islamic republics  Afghanistan  Iran  Mauritania  Pakistan v • d • e Iranian-speaking nations and autonomous entities  Afghanistan •  China (Taxkorgan)1 •  Georgia Georgia ( South Ossetia2) •  Iran •  Iraq ( Kurdistan) •  Russia ( North Ossetia-Alania) •  Pakistan (North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan) •  Tajikistan •  Turkey •  Uzbekistan (1.3 million[124] to 11 million[125] Tajiks) (1) Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County, officially recognised minority in the People's Republic of China. (2) South Ossetia is a self-proclaimed republic within the internationally recognized borders of Georgia. It is presently not recognized by any country. v • d • e Persian literature - Literature of Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan series Middle Persian Denkard · Book of Jamasp · Book of Arda Viraf · Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan · Shapuregan of Mani · Bundahishn · Greater Bundahishn · Menog-i Khrad · Pazand · Counsels of Adarbad Mahraspandan · Dadestan-i Denig · Zadspram · Zand-i Vohuman Yasht Classical Persian Rūdakī (900s) · Daqīqī (900s) · Ferdowsī (Šahnāma, 900s) · Bal'ami (10th century) · Abusaeid Abolkheir (967 - 1049) · Avicenna (980-1037) · Bābā Tāher (1000s) · Kisai (10th century) · Nasir Khusraw (1004 - 1088) · Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) · Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (1006-1088) · Qatran Tabrizi (1009-1072) · Nizam al-Mulk (1018-1092) · Moezi Neyshapuri (11th-12th) · Masud-e Sa'ad Salman (11th-12th) · Hakim Iranshah (12th century) · Omar Khayyām (1048-1131) · Hujwiri (11th century) · Ayn-al-Quzat Hamadani (1098–1131) · Ashraf Ghaznavi (12th century) · Shahab_al-Din_Suhrawardi (1155-1191) · Sanai (11th-12th century) · Attār (1142 – ca. 1220) · Khaghani (1120 - 1190) · Anvari · Faramarz-e Khodadad (12th century) ·  · Nizāmī Ganjavi (1141 – 1209) · Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149-1209) · Shams Tabrizi (d 1248) · Abu Tahir Tartusi (13th century) · Najm al-din Razi (12th-13th) · Shams al-Din Qays Razi (12th-13th) · Baha al-din Walad (12th-13th) · Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201-1274) · Baba Afdal al-Din Kashani · Fakhr al-din Araqi (13th century) · Mahmud Shabistari (1288 – 1320s)  · Abu'l Majd Tabrizi (1321) · Amīr Khosrow (1253 - 1325) · Sa'adī (Būstān (1257) and Golestān (1258) · Bahram-e-Pazhdo (13th) · Zartosht Bahram e Pazhdo (13th) · Rumi (13th) · Homam Tabrizi (1238-1314) · Khaju Kermani (13th-14th)  · Sultan Walad (13th-14th)  · Ibn Yamin (14th century) · Shah Ni'matullah Wali (14th) · Hāfez (Dīvān, 14th) · Abu Ali Qalandar · Fazlallah Astarabadi (14th century) · Nasimi (14th century) · Ubayd Zakani (15th) · Salman Sawaji (15th) · Jāmī (15th) · Kamal Khujandi (1400s) · Emad al-Din Faqih Kemani (14th century) · Ahli Shirzi (1454-1535) · Fuzûlî (1483–1556) · Baba Faghani Shirzani (1519) · Vahshi Bafqi (1523-1583) · Urfi Shirazi (1591) · Sa'eb Tabrizi (1607-1670) · Saba Kashani (17th) · Hatef Esfahani (18th century) · Neshat Esfahani (18th-19th) · Forughi Bistami (1798-1857) · Mahmud Saba Kashani (1813-1893) Contemporary Persian Ahmad Kasravi · Mohammad-Taqī Bahār · Sādeq Hedāyat · Forough Farrokhzad · Šāmlū · Khalilollāh Khalilī · Shahriar · Loiq Sherali · Muhammad Iqbal · Parvin E'tesami · Mehdi Akhavan-Sales · Emad Khorasani · Aref Qazvini · Ebrahim Poordavood · Mirzadeh Eshghi · Allameh Tabatabaei · Adib Pishevari · Ashraf Gilani · Javad Nurbakhsh · Golchin Gilani Notes The above lists includes poets of mainly Iranic background but also some of Indic, Turkic and Slavic background. Persian, at one time, was a common cultural language of much of the non-Arabic Islamic World.

v • d • e Topics related to Iran
History	Greater Iran · Indo-Iranian · Indo-Iranian languages · Aratti Theory · Aryan · History of Iranian science · Intellectual Movements in Iran · Iranian women's movement · Iranian Peoples · Iranian women · Tajiks · Persia · Islamic Conquest · Kingdoms and Kings · Military History of Iran · Iranian Monarchy · Persian Constitutional Revolution · Anglo-Iranian Oil Company · Operation Ajax · White Revolution · Iranian Revolution · Embassy Siege · Iran-Iraq war · Iran Air Flight 655 · 1987 massacre of Iranian pilgrims · Chicago's Persian heritage crisis · History of Islamic Republic of Iran
Politics and Government	Elections · Constitution · Supreme Leader · President · Judicial system · Assembly of Experts · Parliament · Guardian Council · Expediency Discernment Council · Supreme National Security Council · City and Village Councils · Human Rights in Iran · Officials · Provincial Governors · Reformists · United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747 · Ambassadors · Foreign Relations · Ministry of Intelligence · Hezbollah · Terrorism · Military (Army, Air Force, Navy) · Censorship · Iran's Nuclear Program · State Terrorism
Demographics and Health Care	Languages · Iranian citizens · Muslims · Bahá'ís · Christians · Armenians · Jews · Ethnic Minorities · Religious Minorities · Zoroastrians in Iran · Persecution of Zoroastrians · Health Care · Iranian citizens abroad · LGBT
Geography	Major Cities (List of all cities) · Piranshahr · Iranian Azerbaijan · Iranian Balochistan · Iranian Kurdistan · Iranian Plateau · Mountains · Provinces · Earthquakes in Iran
Economy	Central Bank of Iran · Major Iranian Companies · List of Iranian Research Centers · Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) · IDRO · National Iranian Oil Company · Automobile Manufacturing · Iran Aviation Industries Organization · The Milad Tower and Complex · Military Exports · Rial · Tehran Stock Exchange · Iran and copyright issues · International Oil Bourse · Bonyad · The Industrial Corridor of Asalouyeh · Kish Island Free Trade Zone · Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone · Labor and tax laws in Iran · Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) · Mining in Iran · Construction in Iran · Privatization in Iran · Foreign Direct Investment in Iran
Communications and Transportation	Communications in Iran (Telecommunication Company of Iran) · Transportation (Islamic Republic of Iran Railways, Airlines, Iran Shipping Lines)
Energy	Energy of Iran · Ministry of Petroleum of Iran · Nuclear Program
Environment and Agriculture	Environmental issues in Iran · Wildlife of Iran · Agriculture of Iran
Education, Media, Culture and Sport	Iranology · Education (Higher Education, Science, Scientists and Scholars, Universities) · Iranian Philosophy · List of Iranians · Literature · Media (News Agencies, Students' News Agency, Newspapers) · Architecture (Architects) · Persian language · Languages · Art (Modern Art) · Persian Gardens · Cinema · Cuisine · Holidays · Iranian National Symbols · Music (Electronic Music Bands, Ey Iran, Heavy Metal, Musiqi-e Assil, folk, Pop, Rap and Hip-Hop, Rock and Alternative) · Blogs · Mythology · Iranian folklore · Islam in Iran · Islamization in Iran · Sport in Iran · Football
Other	Iranian calendar · Iranian Crown Jewels · Anti-Iranianism · Persian names · Scouting · Tehrangeles · Imperial Salute of Iran