Cross-cultural communication

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Cross-cultural communication (also frequently referred to as intercultural communication) is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds endeavour to communicate.

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Cross-cultural communication tries to bring together such relatively unrelated areas as cultural anthropology and established areas of communication. Its core is to establish and understand how people from different cultures communicate with each other. Its charge is to also produce some guidelines with which people from different cultures can better communicate with each other.

For example, how does a person from China communicate with a person from America? Furthermore, what underlying mental constructs appear from both parties that allows for constructive communication?

Cross-cultural communication, as in many scholarly fields, is a combination of many other fields. These fields include anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication. The field has also moved both toward the treatment of interethnic relations, and toward the study of communication strategies used by co-cultural populations, i.e., communication strategies used to deal with majority or mainstream populations. The introduction of power as a cultural communication variable leads to a body of critical scholarship (e.g., Molefi Kete Asante, Mark P. Orbe, and Ronald L. Jackson II).

The main theories for cross-cultural communication are based on the work done looking at value differences (or Cultural dimensions) among cultures, especially the works of Edward T. Hall, Geert Hofstede, Mary Jane Collier, Harry C. Triandis, Fons Trompenaars and more recently Shalom Schwartz. Clifford Geertz was also a major contributor to this field. The first Ph.D. in intercultural communication was awarded to William J. Starosta (Indiana University, 1973), who became the founding editor of the Howard Journal of Communications. Richard D. Lewis, creator of the Lewis model for the categorization of cultures; and author of When Cultures Collide has captured the rising influence of culture and the seismic changes throughout many regions of the world. Cross-cultural expert and international businessman, Richard D. Lewis has significantly broadened the scope of his seminal work on global business and communication.

These theories have been applied to a variety of different communication theories and settings, including general business and management (Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner) and marketing (Marieke de Mooij, Stephan Dahl). There have also been several successful educational projects which concentrate on the practical applications of these theories in cross-cultural situations. Notably the European-funded research project media-net-works which illustrates ways in which virtual communities can be established to achieve an understanding of how people from different cultures communicate with each other.

These theories have also been criticised mainly by management scholars (e.g. Holden, Nigel) for being based on the culture concept derived from 19th century cultural anthropology and emphasising on culture-as-difference and culture-as-essence. Another criticism has been the uncritical way Hofstede’s dimensions are served up in textbooks as facts. There is a move to focus on 'cross-cultural interdependence' instead of the tradititional views of comparative differences and similarities between cultures and cross-cultural management is seen as a form of knowledge management.

Psychological applications of cross cultural / multicultural communications work on the primes that all human beings essentially communicate on similar definable levels, and these definitions can be predictable and applied to cultivate a “Borderless Communication Foundation”. William Ury of the University of Colorado uses what he calls “Conflict Research” to apply a series of anti-conflict strategies. Lily Lau of Culture Dynamics in Malaysia, “Directive Communication Psychology” to cultivate cooperative multicultural cultures in organisations, and Katinka Bayrish from the Centre for European Reform, applies her version of the psychological effects Economic Dependencies on multiple cultures.

  • Mary Jane Collier
  • Molefi Kete Asante
  • Dean C. Barnlund
  • Guo-Ming Chen
  • Donal Carbough
  • Fred L. Casmir
  • William B. Gudykunst
  • Ronald L. Jackson II
  • Edward T. Hall
  • William S. Howell
  • Satoshi Ishii
  • Min-Sun Kim
  • Young Yun Kim
  • Donald W. Klopf
  • Judith N. Martin
  • Thomas K. Nakayama
  • Sigrid Norris
  • Robert T. Oliver
  • Mark P. Orbe
  • Gerry Philipsen
  • Michael H. Prosser
  • Tulsi B. Saral
  • K. S. Sitaram
  • William J. Starosta
  • Edward C. Stewart
  • Stella Ting-Toomey
  • Richard L. Wiseman
  • June Ock Yum

 This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (October 2007)

The key to effective cross-cultural communication is knowledge. First, it is essential that people understand the potential problems of cross-cultural communication, and make a conscious effort to overcome these problems. Second, it is important to assume that one’s efforts will not always be successful, and adjust one’s behavior appropriately. For example, one should always assume that there is a significant possibility that cultural differences are causing communication problems, and be willing to be patient and forgiving, rather than hostile and aggressive, if problems develop. One should respond slowly and carefully in cross-cultural exchanges, not jumping to the conclusion that you know what is being thought and said. William Ury’s suggestion for heated conflicts is to stop, listen, and think, or as he puts it "go to the balcony" when the situation gets tense. By this he means withdraw from the situation, step back, and reflect on what is going on before you act. This helps in cross cultural communication as well. When things seem to be going badly, stop or slow down and think. What could be going on here? Is it possible I misinterpreted what they said, or they misinterpreted me? Often misinterpretation is the source of the problem. Active listening can sometimes be used to check this out–by repeating what one thinks he or she heard, one can confirm that one understands the communication accurately. If words are used differently between languages or cultural groups, however, even active listening can overlook misunderstandings. Often intermediaries who are familiar with both cultures can be helpful in cross-cultural communication situations. They can translate both the substance and the manner of what is said. For instance, they can tone down strong statements that would be considered appropriate in one culture but not in another, before they are given to people from a culture that does not talk together in such a strong way. They can also adjust the timing of what is said and done. Some cultures move quickly to the point; others talk about other things long enough to establish rapport or a relationship with the other person. If discussion on the primary topic begins too soon, the group that needs a "warm up" first will feel uncomfortable. A mediator or intermediary who understands this can explain the problem, and make appropriate procedural adjustments. Yet sometimes intermediaries can make communication even more difficult. If a mediator is the same culture or nationality as one of the disputants, but not the other, this gives the appearance of bias, even when none exists. Even when bias is not intended, it is common for mediators to be more supportive or more understanding of the person who is of his or her own culture, simply because they understand them better. Yet when the mediator is of a third cultural group, the potential for cross-cultural misunderstandings increases further.

  • Asante, Molefi Kete, Miike, Yoshitaka, & Yin, Jing. (Eds.). (2008). The global intercultural communication reader. New York: Routledge.
  • Bennett, Milton J. (Ed.). (1998). Basic concepts of intercultural communication. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, Boston MA.

Carbaugh, Donal. (2005). "Cultures in Conversation." Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

  • Chen, Guo-Ming, & Starosta, William J. (2005). Foundations of intercultural communication. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
  • Chen, Guo-Ming, & Starosta, William J. (Eds.). (2000). Communication and global society. New York: Peter Lang.
  • Klopf, Donald W., & McCroskey, James C. (2007). Intercultural communication encounters. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
  • Rogers, Everett M., & Steinfatt, Thomas M. (1999). Intercultural communication. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
  • Samovar, Larry A., Porter, Richard E., & McDaniel, Edwin R. (2007). Communication between cultures (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
  • Samovar, Larry A., Porter, Richard E., & McDaniel, Edwin R. (Eds.). (2006). Intercultural communication: A reader (11th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
  • Hofstede, Gert Jan; Pederson, Paul B.; Hofstede Geert. Exploring Culture.Intercultural Press , Boston, MA.
  • Peterson, Brooks. (2004). Cultural Intelligence. Intercultural Press, Boston, MA.
  • Starosta, William J., & Chen, Guo-Ming. (Eds.). (2003). Ferment in the intercultural field: Axiology/value/praxis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Storti, Craig. (1994). Cross-Cultural Dialogues. Intercultural Press, Boston, MA.
  • Lewis, Richard D. (1996, 1999, 2006). When cultures collide. Intercultural Press, Boston, MA.
  • Lewis, Richard D. (2003, 2007). The cultural imperative. Intercultural Press, Boston, MA.
  • Lewis, Richard D. (2005). Finland-Cultural lone wolf. Intercultural Press, Boston, MA.
  • Lewis, Richard D. (2005). Humour across frontiers. Transcreen Publications Hampshire.
  • Martin, Judith N., & Nakayama, Thomas K. (2007). Intercultural communication in contexts (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Trompenaars, Fons, & Hampden-Turner, Charles. (1998). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding diversity in global business (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Slavik Hannah (Ed.).(2004) Intercultural Communication and Diplomacy DiploFoundation, ISBN 99932-53-08-1

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