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60 BC Kingdom of Corduene

Corduene (also known as Gorduene, Cordyene, Cardyene, Carduene, Gordyene, Gordyaea, Korduene, Korchayk and Girdiyan) was an ancient region located in northern Mesopotamia. For most of its history, it was a province of the Roman Empire. Corduene was situated to the east of Tigranocerta^[1] (i.e., to the east and south of present-day Diyarbakır in southeastern Turkey) and northeast of Hakkari.^[2] According to the Britannica, Gordyene is the ancient name for the region of Bohtan (Şırnak Province).^[3] It is mentioned as Beth Qardu in Syriac sources and is described as a small vassal state between Armenia and Persia in the mountainous area south of Lake Van in modern Turkey^[4] Corduene was a fertile and friendly province, which acknowledged the sovereignty of Rome^[5] It has been cited as a Kingdom to the east of the Tigris and as the country of the Carduchians (now Bohtan), a mountainous district, rich in pasturage, south of Armenia^[6] (For a map of the region in which this Kingdom was located see^[7]). Corduene must also be sought on the left bank of the Tigris. From 189 to 90 BC it enjoyed a period of independence. The people of Gorduene were known to have worshipped the Hurrian sky God Teshub^[8].

The term Corduene is derived from the Greek word Karduchoi (Kαρδoύχoι) used by Xenophon in The Retreat of Ten Thousand. In the classical and Roman periods, the name became Corduene. There were numerous other forms of this name, due to the difficulty of representing kh in Latin. The name Karduchoi is itself probably borrowed from Armenian, since the termination -choi represents the Armenian language plural suffix -kh.^[9] Carduchi spoke an Iranic language very close to Median language ^[10]

Targum, a Jewish source of Talmudic period, consistently understands Ararat to be located in Gorduene and not in Armenia^[11]. This region is usually identified with the landing site in Deluge mythology. According to Aggadah, Noah landed in Korduene in Armenia. Berossus was also of the opinion that Xisthros landed with his ship in Korduene ^[12]. Josephus cited the evidence of Berossus as proof that the Flood was not a myth and also mentioned that the remains of the Ark were still visible in the district of Carron, persumably identical with Korduene^[13]. In Nashim, the third order of of Talmud, Rav Nahman bar Jacob has allowed proselytization of Kurds from Corduene^[14]. This points to the existence of Jewish converts among the population of Corduene in the early 4th century.

According to the Roman historian Strabo, the region of Gorduene (Γορδυηνῆ, or Γoρδυαῖα ὄρη, "Gordyaean Mts") referred to the mountains between Diyarbakır and Muş.^[15][16] He recorded its main cities as Sareisa (Shareisha or Shereshe; north of Diyarbakır, around Ergani), Satalca (located west of Sareisa) and Pinaca (Bezabde), and considered its inhabitants (Gordyaeans) as descendants of the ancient Carduchians. According to him, the inhabitants had an exceptional repute as master-builders and as experts in the construction of siege engines and for this reason Tigranes used them in such work; he also notices the country for its naphtha resources. ^[17] Ammianus Marcellinus visited this region while on a diplomatic visit to the satrap of Corduene.^[18]

Both Phraates III and Tigranes the Great laid claim to this province. However, it was conquered by the Roman troops under Pompey. The local population (called Gordyeni) did not defend the Armenian rule since according to Plutarch, Tigranes had demolished their native cities and had forced them into exile in Tigranocerta.^[19] In 69 BC, Zarbienus, the king of Corduene, was secretly planning for a revolt against Tigranes. He was negotiating with Appius Claudius for Roman help. However the plan was revealed and he was killed by Tigranes. After this, Lucullus raised a monument to Zarbienus and then he took over the region of Corduene.^[20] He took part in the funeral of Zarbienus, offered royal robes, gold and the spoils (taken from Tigranes), and called him his companion and confederate of the Romans.^[21]

After Pompey's success in subjugating Armenia and part of Pontus, and the Roman advance across the Euphrates, Phraates was anxious to have a truce with the Romans. However, Pompey held him in contempt and demanded back the territory of Corduene. He sent envoys, but after receiving no answer, he sent Afranius into the territory and occupied it without a battle. The Parthians who were found in possession were driven beyond the frontier and pursued even as far as Arbela in Adiabene.^[22] According to an inscription dedicated to the temple of Venus, Pompey gave protection to the newly acquired territory of Gordyene.^[23]

Map showing Corduene as a vassal Kingdom of Armenian Empire.

Tigran retained Gordyene and Nisibis, which Pompeius withheld from the Parthians. ^[24] Gordyene belonged to Urartu for about 200 years and to Armenia for only about 25 years during the reign of Tigranes. ^[25]

Districts of Cordyene under Armenian period were:

Korduq (or Korduk), Kordiq Nerkin, Kordiq Verin, Kordiq Mijin, Tshauk, Aitvanq, Vorsirank (or Orsirank), Aigarq, Motolanq, Kartuniq, Albag.

Corduene was conquered again by Diocletian in the 3rd century and the Roman presence in the region was formally recognized in a peace treaty signed between Diocletian and the Persians. Diocletian then raised an army unit from this region under the title Ala XV Flavia Carduenorum, naming it after his Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus^[27].

Following the defeat of Narseh, the Sassanid King, at the hands of the Romans in 296, a peace treaty was signed between the two sides, according to which the steppes of northern Mesopotamia, with Singara and the hill country on the left bank of the Tigris as far as Gordyene (Corduene), were also ceded to the victors (Romans).^[28]

The name of the province appears again in the account of the campaign between the Persians led by Shapur II and the Romans led by Julian the Apostate (and after Julian's death, by Jovian). It is documented to be a mountainous region in the north of the Assyrian plains.^[29] The Romans started to retreat through Corduene after they could not besiege Ctesiphon.^[30]

In the spring of 360, Shapur II staged a campaign to capture the city of Singara (probably modern Shingar or Sinjar northwest of Mosul). The town fell after a few days of siege. From Singara, Shapur directed his march almost due northwards, and leaving Nisibis unassailed upon his left, proceeded to attack the strong fort known indifferently as Pinaca (Phaenicha) or Bezabde. This was a position on the east bank of the Tigris, near the point where that river quits the mountains and debouches upon the plain; though not on the site, it may be considered the representative of the modern Jezireh (Cizre in southeastern Turkey), which commands the passes from the low country into the Kurdish mountains. It was much valued by Rome, was fortified in places with a double wall, and was guarded by three legions and a large body of Kurdish archers. Shapur sent a flag of truce to demand a surrender, joining with the messengers some prisoners of high rank taken at Singara, lest the enemy should open fire upon his envoys. The device was successful; but the garrison proved staunch, and determined on resisting to the last. After a long siege, the wall was at last breached, the city taken, and its defenders indiscriminately massacred.^[31]

In 363, a treaty was signed in which Jovian ceded five provinces beyond the Euphrates including Corduene and Arzanene and towns of Nisibis and Singara to the Sassanids. Following this treaty, Greeks living in those lands emigrated due to persecution of Christians at the hands of Shapur and the Zoroastrians^[32].

Corduene was a bishop's see since at least 424 ^[33].

According to Khwarizmi, Arabs conquered the area along with Nisbis and Tur Abdin in 640^[34].

Map showing Kurdish-inhabited kingdoms of Corduene and Adiabene in the first centuries BC. The blue line shows the expedition and then retreat of the ten thousand through Corduene in 401 BC.

The words Corduene and Gordyene are no doubt the ancient lexical equivalents of the modern "Kurdistan", meaning the land of the Kurds.^[35][36] Kurds are commonly identified with the ancient Corduene.^[37] The tract to this day known as Kurdistan, the high mountain region south and southeast of Lake Van between Persia and Mesopotamia, was in the possession of Kurds from before the time of Xenophon, and was known as the country of the Carduchi, as Cardyene, and as Cordyene.^[38]

The Greek General Xenophon tells in his book Anabasis of the retreat of the Greek army he was leading through Kurdistan in 401 BC after their unsuccessful expedition to Persia (Xenophon, 1949). When they reach the mountains, he asks their Persian guide about the people who live in the region. The Persian guide replies that they are a fierce warlike people called Karduchi who have never been subjected by any king. He adds that once the Persian king attempted to occupy their lands, but he failed after losing 100,000 soldiers. Xenophon decides to proceed with great caution, but his army immediately starts robbing and then burning villages of the Karduchi on its way. When the Karduchi see this, they make fires on tops of mountains and hills to inform all regions that there is an invading army. Then they start a guerilla war against the invading forces. At last, after being bogged down for seven days, Xenophon decides to negotiate with the Karduchi safe passage through their mountains. He finds someone who speaks their language to speak to them. He tells the translator to ask the Karduchi why they fight the Greek army. The Karduchi say: "It is you who are fighting us. You are invading our country and burning our villages and houses". When Xenophon promises to stop burning their villages, they allow Xenophon and his men to pass safely without any further trouble.

• Zarbienus; early-mid 1st c. BC: A famous king of Cordyene, made overtures to Appius Claudius, when the latter was staying at Antiocheia, wishing to shake off the yoke of Tigranes. He was informed against, however, and was assassinated with his wife and children before the Romans entered Armenia. When Lucullus arrived he celebrated his funeral rites with great pomp, setting fire to the funeral pile with his own hand, and had a sumptuous monument erected to him.

• Manisarus; ~ 115 AD He took control over parts of Armenia and Mesopotamia, in the time of Trajan; therefor Osroes, the Parthian king, declared war against him; Manisarus sided with Romans. There are some coins extant, which are assigned to Manisarus.
• Ardashir; ~ 340s AD He was against christianization of Corduene ^[39].
• Jovinian ~ 359 AD ^[40]

• To Urartu 800s-595 BC
• To Persia 595-331 BC
• To Alexander the Great 331-301 BC
• To the Seleucid Empire 301-189 BC
• Independent 189-90 BC
• To Armenia 90-66 BC^[41]
• To the Roman Republic 66-27 BC
• To the Roman Empire 27 BC-AD 37
• To Persia 37-47
• To the Roman Empire 47-252
• To Persia 252-287
• To the Roman Empire 287-384
• To Armenia 384-428
• To Persia 428-653
• To the Caliphate thereafter.^[42]

• Corduene or Gordyene, Classical Dictionary of Biography, Mythology and Geography.
• Geography, Strabo, Book XVI, Chapter 1, Section 24.
• Kurds and Kurdistan, see section iii History, subsection A Origins and Pre-Islamic History, Encyclopaedia of Islam.
• Map of Corduene
• Map of Gordyene between Assyria and Lake Van
• Theodor Mommsen History of Rome, The Establishment of the Military Monarchy, Page 53
• Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
• Roman History, by Cassius Dio, Book XXX
• The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 2, Chapter XXIV, Part IV, The Retreat and Death of Julian], by Edward Gibbon.
• History of Rome, The Establishment of the Military Monarchy, by Theodor Mommsen, page 24.
• History of the Later Roman Empire, by J. B. Bury, Chapter IV.
• The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 7. (of 7): The Sassanian or New Persian Empire, by George Rawlinson.

v • d • e Roman Imperial Provinces (AD 117)

Achaea | Ægyptus | Africa | Alpes Cottiae | Alpes Maritimae | Alpes Poeninae | Arabia Petraea | Armenia | Asia | Assyria | Bithynia et Pontus | Britannia | Cappadocia | Cilicia | Corsica et Sardinia | Creta et Cyrenaica | Cyprus | Dacia | Dalmatia | Epirus | Galatia | Gallia Aquitania | Gallia Belgica | Gallia Lugdunensis | Gallia Narbonensis | Germania Inferior | Germania Superior | Hispania Baetica | Hispania Tarraconensis | Italia | Iudaea | Lusitania | Lycia et Pamphylia | Macedonia | Mauretania Caesariensis | Mauretania Tingitana | Moesia Inferior | Moesia Superior | Noricum | Pannonia Inferior | Pannonia Superior | Raetia | Sicilia | Syria | Taurica | Thracia

v • d • e Historical regions of Armenia

The traditional 15 provinces of Historic Armenia: 1. Upper Armenia • 2. Sophene • 3. Aghdznik • 4. Turuberan • 5. Moxoene • 6. Corduene • 7. Parskahayk • 8. Vaspurakan • 9. Syunik • 10. Artsakh • 11. Paytakaran • 12. Utik • 13. Gugark • 14. Tayk • 15. Ayrarat Other historical regions of Armenia: Karin • Taron • Commagene • Armenian Mesopotamia • Norshirakan • Lesser Armenia • Cilicia • Mardali • Mogkh