Ashvakas

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The Ashvakas (Panini: Ashvakayans & Ashvayans) are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan (Nuristan) and north-west frontiers of modern Pakistan, including the Chitral-Valley. They are/were a sub-group of the Greater Kamboja tribe profusely referenced in ancient Sanskrit/Pali literature and were partitioned into eastern, western and southern Ashvakas. They find mention in the Puranas, Mahabharata and numerous other ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts. Today, their descendants are mostly heterogeneous people.

The Sanskrit term ashva , Iranian aspa and Prakrit assa means horse. The name Ashvaka/Ashvakan or Assaka is said to be derived from Sanskrit Ashva or Prakrit Assa and it literally denotes someone connected with the horses---hence: a horseman, or a cavalryman. The Ashvakas were especially engaged in the occupation of breeding, raising and training war horses, as also in providing expert cavalry services to outside nations, hence they also constituted an excellent class of Kshatriyas (warriors).

Panini styles the Aspas and the Ashvakas of the Kapiśa (modern Nuristan - formerly known as Kafirstan) and Gandhara valleys, which included north-western Punjab, as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas respectively.[1]

Classical writers use the respective equivalents Aspasioi or Aspasii (Hippasii) and Assakenoi (or Assaceni/Assacani). In Nuristan, one can discover the term Aspasioi/Aspasii engraved on a rock. The Assakenoi and Aspasioi (Hipasii) are stated to be a section of the more general tribal name Kamboja [2]. Mahabharata [3], Buddhist texts Anupa-Niddesa [4], Manorathapurni, Kunala Jataka, Samangalavilasini [5], Jaina Canon Uttaradhyana Sutra [6] as well as Kautiliya's Arthashastra [7], profusely attest that the horses from Kambojas were the foremost breed. "Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e the Kamboja), the Indian pseudo-epic Mahabharata speaks among the finest horsemen" [8].

Contents

The Ashvakas were resident in the eastern parts of modern Afghanistan (Nuristan) and their population reached up to the Indus River and to parts of Punjab. Their metropolitan areas were in the area of Swat and Kunar-River.

Ancient Sanskrit literature also refers to another clan called Ashmaka or Assaka which represented an Indo-Aryan Janapada located on river Godavari in south-west India. Ashmaka literally means land of stone.

Aruppa-Niddesa of Visuddhimagga by Buddhaghosa describes the Kamboja land as the base of horses.[9]

Buddhist texts like Manorathapurni, Kunala Jataka and Samangalavilasini speak of Kamboja land as the land of horses e.g:

Kambojo assa.nam ayata.nam...[10].
Translation:
Kamboja, the land of horses (assa).

The cluster assa in the above expression of Sumangavilasini means horse, which on adding suffix -ka gives the Prakrit Assaka which term when considered in the context of the above expression denotes the following:

  • Assaka = The Kambojas connected with horses; horsemen; cavalry.
  • Assaka = The Kamboja land or Janapada.

Similarly, the Sanskrit Ashvaka can be derived from Sanskrit Ashva which, likewise, denote the following:

  • Ashvaka = The Kambojas connected with horses; horsemen; cavalry.
  • Ashvaka = The Kamboja land or Janapada.

From the above statement, it is very obvious that term Assaka or Ashvaka stood for the Kamboja land, Kamboja people, Kamboja horsemen or the Kamboja cavalry..

In the Anushasnaparava section of Mahabharata, the Kambojas are specifically designated as ashava.yuddha.kushalah (expert cavalry).[11]

Commenting on the above verse of Mahabharta, noted scholars like Dr K. P. Jayswal observe that "Since the Kambojas were famous for their horses (ashva) and as a cavalry-men (Ashva-yudhah kushalah), hence the Ashvakas i.e. horsemen was the term popularly applied to them".[12]

Vishnudharmotra Purana too specifically attests that the Kambojas and Gandharas were proficient in cavalry warfare i.e. in Ashva-Yuddha.[13]

The coins of Ashsvakas refer to themselves as vatasvaka (vata.asvaka), which in Sanskrit, equals varta-ashvaka i.e Ashvakas engaged in varta profession.[14]

The use of prikritic vata (Sanskrit varta) appellation by the Ashvakas in their coins reminds one of the Varta.shastr.opajivin descriptions of the Kambojas as attested by Kautiliya in his Arthashastra.[15]

The above view is further reinforced by Brahtsamhita of Varaha Mihira which also says that the Kambojas lived by shastr and varta.[16]

The Asvayanas (Kambojas) have been attested to be good cattle breeders and agricuturists by classical writers. This is clear from big number of the bullocks, 230,000 according to Arrian, of a size and shape superior to what the Macedonians had not known, which Alexander captured from them and decided to send them to Macedonia for agriculture.[17]

The Ashvaka Kambojas are also attested to have fielded 30,000 strong cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexander.[18]

These above staggering figures about agricultural cattle and the war horses of the Ashvakas sufficiently prove the correctness of Kautiliya's statement on the Kambojas which portrays the Kambojas as living both by warfare (shastr.opajivin) as well as by agriculture/cattle-culture (varta.opajivin).

The above facts, when viewed in the light of time and space propinquity, evidently connect the Ashvakas with the varta.shastr.opajivin Kambojas of the Arthashastra.[19]

Sir Thomas H. Holdich, in the his classic book, The Gates of India, writes that the Aspasians (Aspasioi) represent the modern Kafirs.[20] But the modern Kafirs, especially the Siyah-Posh Kafirs (Kamoz/Camoje, Kamtoz) etc are considered to be modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas [1], this shows that the Aspasioi (Aspas), who were the western branch of the Assakenoi (Ashvakas) of classical writings, represented a section of the Sanskrit Kambojas.

French scholars like Dr E. Lamotte has also identified the Ashvakas with the Kambojas of ancient Sanskrit literature. "Par ailleurs le Kamboja est régulièrement mentionné comme la "patrie des chevaux" (Asvanam ayatanam), et cette reputation bien etablie valnut peut-etre aux eleveurs de chevaux du Bajaur et du Swat l'appellation d'Aspasioi (du v.-p. aspa) et d’assakenoi (du skt asva “cheval”)" [21].

Cf: "Kamboja is regularly mentioned as the "homeland of horses" and it was this well-established reputation which possibly earned the horse-breeders of Bajaur and Swat the epithet of Aspasioi (from Old Pers Aspa) and Assakenoi (from Sanskrit Asva “horse”)" [22] [23].

Dr L. M. Joshi and Dr Fauja Singh, like Dr E. Lamotte, also identify the Assakenoi and Aspasioi of classical writings as the clans of the Kambojas.[24].

J. W. McCrindle says that the modern Afghanistan -- the Kaofue (Kambu) of Hiun Tsang was ancient Kamboja, and further says that the name Afghan evidently derives from the Ashavakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian. Thus it can be seen that Dr McCrindle clearly identifies the classical Assakenoi/Aspasioi with the Sanskrit Kambojas.[25]

Dr H. C. Raychayudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee write: "With the expression Assa.nam Ayata.nam---land of horses used by Pali texts in reference to the Kambojas, may be compared the names Aspasioi and Assakenoi given by classical writers to the sturdy people living in the Alishang and Swat valleys in the days of Alexander "[26].

Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente has also identified the Aspasioi-Asvayanas, Assakenoi-Asvakayanas with the Kambojas of Eastern Afghanistan, who were noted for their horses [27].

Dr S. M. Ali has identified the ancient Kambojas of the Puranic literature with the inhabitants of the Kafir valleys,[28] who, as we know from classical writings, were none else than the Aspasioi off-shoot of the Ashvakan Kambojas.

Dr R. C. Majumdar, Romila Thappar, noted historians of India also take the Ashvakas as same people as the Kambojas and they connect them with the people of Kafirstan.

Dr Buddha Parkash notes: "The Macedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangements of Darius and over-running Achaemenian empire, dashed into modern Pakistan (achemenid satrapen) and encountered stiff residstence of the Kamboja tribes called Aspasioi and Assakenoi known in the Indian texts as Ashvayana and Ashvakayana ".[29]

These Ashvayana and Ashvakayana clans had fought the invader to a man. When worst came to worst, even the Ashvakayana Kamboj women had taken up arms and joined their fighting husbands, thus preferring "a glorious death to a life of dishonor".[30] Diodorus gives a detailed graphic picture as to how the Ashvakayanas (Kambojs) had conducted themselves when faced with the sudden treacherous onslaught from Alexander.[31]

Commenting on the heroic resistance and courage displayed by the Ashvakayanas (Kambojas) in the face of treacerous onslaught of Alexander, Dr Buddha Prakash remarks: "Hardly could any Thermopylae be more glorious !"[32]

Numerous scholars of note now believe that the name Afghan has been derived from Sanskrit Ashvaka or Ashvakan (q.v), the Assakenoi of Arrian[33]. This view was propounded by scholars like Dr Christian Lassen [34], Dr J. W. McCrindle [35], M. V. de Saint Martin [36] etc, and has been supported by numerous modern scholars [37] [38] [39]. In Sanskrit, word ashva (Iranian aspa, Prakrit assa) means "horse", and ashvaka (Prakrit assaka) means "horseman" [40], "horse people" [41], "land of horses" [42]

The Afghans should correspondingly have belonged to the southern Ashvakans of modern Pashtunwa and parts of Baluchistan (and maybe as well of Sindh) who migrated in the second Millennium A.D to north- and eastward to north India until Bengal. In Peshawar and it's surrounding regions and valleys they replaced the indigenous population of Gakhars (hinduized Persians and Parsis) slowly but for certain and their settled areas Babur mentioned in his Baburnamah as Afghanistan and the people as Afghans. The Afghans started their career in the 13th century as slaves of the Persian Ghurids and ruled after the death of the Persian Ghurid general Aybak the Indo-Ghurid Empire further as Slave-Dynasty known also as Mamluk dynasty of Delhi. See: Lodhi dynasty and Khilji dynasty .

The Kambojas were constituted into military Sanghas and Corporations to manage their affairs, as Kautiliya and Mahabharata amply attest for us. They are also attested to be living as Ayuddha-jivi or Shastr-opajivis, which means that the Kamboja cavalry offered its military services to other nations as well. There are numerous references to Kambojas being requistioned as cavalry troopers in ancient wars by outside nations.

Further information: Alexander's Conflict with the Kambojas

Herodotus attests that the Gandarian mercenaries (Gandharans/Kambojans) from the twentieth strapy of the Achaemenids were recruited in the army of emperor Xerxes I (486-465 BCE) which he led against the Hellas.[43]

Similarly, the men of the Mountain Land (Akaufaka), from north of Kabol-River equivalent to medieval Kohistan (Pakistan), figure in the army of Darius III against Alexander at Arbela with a cavalry and fifteen elephants.[44]

These mercenaries were the well known parvatiya Ayuddhajivins of Panini's Ashtadhyayi[45] located on either side of the Hindukush and who belonged to Kamboja/Gandhara group of a warrior caste.[46]

Further information: Kambojas in the Mahabharata

General Sudakshina of the Kambojas was invited by Duryodhana, the Kuru king of Hastinapura to help him in the Mahabharata war against the Pandavas. Sudakshina Kamboj came to his side with one Akshauhini powerful army of ferocious Central Asian warriors which also included the Shakas and Yavanas, besides the Kambojas.[47] Of the ten distinguished Generals appointed by Duryodhana to efficiently manage his vast host of army, Sudakshina Kamboja was one such distinguished General.[48]

Bala Kanda of Valmiki Ramayana refers to a battle between sage Vasishtha and king Vishwamitra of Kanauj. Sage Visishtha had sought the military assistance of the Kambojas, Shakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Kiratas and other Mlechchas from the north-west. King Vishwamitra had lost all his sons in the battle. In remorse, he renounced the world and turned into an ascetic after the war.[49]

The Buddhist drama Mudra-rakashas by Visakha Dutta and the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvataka. The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2).[50]

With the help of these frontier martial tribes from Central Asia, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Greek successors of Alexander the Great and the Nanda/Nandin rulers of Magadha so as to found the powerful Maurya empire in northern India, at least for a short time till the Kushans and other ruler conquered north-west India.

The Kalika Purana, one of the eighteen Upa-Puranas of the Hindus, refers to a war between Brahmanical king Kalika (supposed to be Pusyamitra Sunga) and Buddhist king Kali (supposed to be Maurya king Brihadratha (187-180 BCE)) and notes the Shakas, Kambojas, Khasas etc as a powerful military allies of king Kali. The Purana further notes these Barbarians as taking orders from their women,[51] which culture was typical of tribes located on Oxus/north-west.

Patanjali around 150 BCE and Yuga Purana chapter of Gargi-Samhita refer to second century BCE Yavana attack on Saketa, Panchala, Mathura and Pataliputra located in Majjhima-desa or Mid India. Anushasnaparava of Mahabharata attests that Mathura country in Mid India was under the joint control of the Yavanas and the Kambojas (12.101.05). The Kamboja royal family at Mathura is also attested from Mathura Lion Capitol inscriptions of Saka Strap (Kshatrapa) Rajuvula. Vanaparava of Mahabharata woefully deplores that the sacred earth (Indo-Aryan land), in Kaliyuga, would be ruled un-righteously by Mlechchha kings of the Yavanas, Kambojas, Sakas etc.[52] These references show that the Kamboja cavalry from north-west in conjunction with the Yavanas had invaded Mid India and ruled over it prior to Christian era [2] [3].

According to numerous Puranas, the military Corporations of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas, known as five hordes (pānca-ganah), had militarily supported the Haihaya and Talajunga Kshatriyas in depriving Ikshvaku king Bahu (the 7th king in descent from Harishchandra), of his Ayodhya kingdom.

A generation later, Bahu's son, Sagara recaptured Ayodhya after totally destroying the Haihaya and Talajangha Kshatriyas in the battle. Story goes that king Sagara had punished these foreign hordes by changing their hair-styles and turning them into degraded Kshatriyas.[53]

Bhagavata Purana refers to a war between Jarasandha and Yadavas led by Sri Krshna. The Kambojas came as military allies of Jarasandha, king of Magadha. There is reference to the siege of Gomant Parvata where the Kamboja army was positioned on its east flank.[54] Bhagavata Purana[55] speaks of the Kamboja General as a powerfully armed mighty warrior (samiti-salina atta-capah Kamboja).

Main article: Kamboja Dynasty of Bengal

The Palas employed mercenary forces and certainly recruited horses from Kambojas as is clear from their own Inscriptions.[56] According to Dr N. G. Majumdar, if horses could be brought from Kamboja, it is also perfectly reasonable to suppose that for trade and other purposes, some adventurers (from Kamboja) could also have found their way into that province.[57] Scholars like Dr R. C. Majumdar observe that the armed forces of Pala Dynasty of Bengal had included foreigners like the Khasas, Hunas, Kambojas, Kulitas, Karnatas, Latas and Malavas etc. Writes Dr R. C. Majumdar: "Mercenary soldiers (Specially cavalry) might have been recruited from the Kambojas and some of them might have been influential chiefs". According Dr Majumdar and many other scholars, some courageous military General of the Kambojas had later captured north-western parts of Bengal from the Palas and founded the Kamboja dynasty in Bengal.[58]

Scholars also state that the Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces in 8th/10th centuries AD. They had come to Bengal with the Pratiharas when the latter conquered part of the province.[59][60][61][62][63][64] In fact, there is stated to have been a separate regiment of the Kambojas in the army of the Pratiharas which was given the responsibility to defend the northern-eastern parts of their empire adjoining with the Palas of Bengal. When the fortunes of the Palas sagged low after the death of Narayanapala in early tenth century, these Kambojas, the military associates of the Pratiharas had seized Gauda from Pala king Rajyapala and laid the foundation of the Kamboja empire in north-west Bengal.[65][66]

  1. ^ Ashtadshyayi: Sutra IV-1, 110; Nadadi gana IV-1, 99.
  2. ^ Hindu Polity, A Contitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133 fn 6, pp 216-20, (Also Commentary, op. cit., p 576, fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte; East and West, 1950, pp 28, 157-58, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti; Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10, Dr Buddha Parkash; Raja Poros, 1990, Publication Buareau, Punjabi University, Patiala; History of Panjab, Vol I, (Editors): Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Josh, Publication Bureau, Panjabi University, Patiala; History of Poros, 1967, p 89, Dr Buddha Prakash; History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era, 1988, p 100 - History; Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp 129, 218-19, S Kirpal Singh etc.
  3. ^ Mahabharata 6.90.3-4.
  4. ^ Aruppa-Niddesa 10.28.
  5. ^ Samangalavilasini, Vol I, p 124.
  6. ^ (Uttaradhyana Sutra XI.16).
  7. ^ Arthashastra 2.30.29.
  8. ^ Journal of American Oriental society, 1889, p 257, American Oriental Society; Mahabharata 10.18.13.
  9. ^ Aruppa-Niddesa 10.28.
  10. ^ Samangalavilasini, Vol I, p 124.
  11. ^
    Sanskrit:
    tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye |
    ete 'ashava.yuddha.kushalahdasinatyasi charminah || 5 ||
    (MBH 12.101.5, Kumbhakonam Ed).
  12. ^ Hindu Polity, 1978, pp 121, 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal.
  13. ^ Vishnudharmotra Purana, Part II, Ch 118; also see: Military Wisdom in the Puranas, 1969, p 64, Prof Sen Sarma.
  14. ^ Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, pp 98-100: History and Culture of Indian People, the Age of Imperial Unity, Vol II, p 45, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr Munshi etc.
  15. ^ Arthashastra 11.1.4.
  16. ^ Brhatsamhita, 5.35
  17. ^ History of Panjab, Vol I, p 226, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 247, Dr J. L. Kamboj; cf: A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (Oxford India Paperbacks), p 91, K. T. Achaya February 2001.
  18. ^ Ancient India, 2000, p 261, Dr V. D. Mahajan.
  19. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 11, 226.
  20. ^ The Gates of India, p 102-03.
  21. ^ Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte.
  22. ^ History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era, 1988, p 100 - History.
  23. ^ See also: East and West, 1950, pp 28, 157-58, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti.
  24. ^ History of Panjab, Vol I, (Editors): Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Josh, Publication Bureau, Panjabi University, Patiala; see also Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192, K. S. Dardi.
  25. ^ Alexandra's Invasion of India, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180, J. McCrindle.
  26. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, p 216 ffn 2, p 576; Commentary Dr B. N. Mukerjee; cf: MBH VI.90.3.
  27. ^ East and West, 1950, pp 28, 149/158, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti.
  28. ^ Geography of the Puranas p 143.
  29. ^ Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10, Dr Buddha Parkash; See also: History of Porus, pp 12, 38.
  30. ^ Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270; History of Civilizations of Central Asia, 1999, p 76, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Vadim Mikhaĭlovich Masson, János Harmatta, Boris Abramovich Litvinovskiĭ, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Unesco - Asia, Central.
  31. ^ Writes Diodorus: "Undismayed by the greatness of their danger, the Ashvakayanas (Kambojas) drew their ranks together in the form of a ring within which they placed their women and children to guard them on all sides against their assailants. As they had now become desperate, and by their audacity and feats of valour, made the conflict in which they closed, hot work for the enemy--great was the astonishment and alarm which the peril of the crisis had created. For, as the combatants were locked together fighting hand-to-hand, death and wounds were dealt round in every variety of form. While many were thus wounded, and not a few killed, the women, taking the arms of the fallen, fought side by side with their men. Accordingly, some of them who had supplied themselves with arms, did their best to cover their husbands with their shields, while the others, who were without arms, did much to impede the enemy by flinging themselves upon them and catching hold of their shields. The defenders, however, after fighting desperately along with their wives, were at last overpowered by superior numbers, and thus met a glorious death which they would have disdained to exchange for the life of dishonour" (See: Diodorus in McCrindle, p 269/270; History of Civilizations of Central Asia, 1999, p 76, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Vadim Mikhaĭlovich Masson, János Harmatta, Boris Abramovich Litvinovskiĭ, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Unesco - Asia, Central; History of Punjab, 1997, p 229, Editors: Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi; Classical Accounts of India, p 112-113; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 283-286, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134, Kirpal Singh).
  32. ^ History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229.
  33. ^ Arrian writes them Assakenoi. Strabo also calls them Assakanoi, but Curtius calls them Assacani.
  34. ^ Indische Alterthumskunde, Vol I, fn 6; also Vol II, p 129, et al.
  35. ^ "The name Afghan has been derived from Asvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian... " (Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180. See also: Alexander's Invasion of India, p 38; J. W. McCrindle).
  36. ^ Etude Sur la Geog Grecque & c, pp 39-47, M. V. de Saint Martin.
  37. ^ This includes Dr H. H. Wilson, L. Bishop, W. Crooke, H. K. Kakar, J. C. Vidyalnar, Chandra Chakravorty, Dr M. R. Singh, P. Smith, N. L. Dey, Henry Yule, A. C. Burnell, Dr J. L. Kamboj, S. Kirpal Singh and several others. http://books.google.com/books?vid=LCCN01005366&id=GJQn7XA6Cz4C&pg=RA12-PA156&lpg=RA12-PA156&dq=Ashvaka
  38. ^ Literary History of Ancient India in Relation to Its Racial and Linguistic Affiliations, 1970, p 17, Chandra Chakraberty.
  39. ^ Shi jie jian wen, 1980, p 68, Shi jie zhi shi chu ban she.
  40. ^ Ref: Sva, 1915, p 113, Christopher Molesworth Birdwood.
  41. ^ Al-Hind, The Making of Indo-Islamic World, 2002, p 84, Andre Wink; Journal of Indian History Golden Jubilee Volume, 1973, p 470, University of Kerala, Department of History.
  42. ^ Historical Geography of Madhya Pradesh, From Early Records, 1977, p 3, Dr P. K. Bhattacharya; Proceedings of the World of Sanskrit Conference. 1985, p 783, International association of Sanskrit.
  43. ^ Herodotus, IV.65-66.
  44. ^ History of Persian Empire, p 232, Dr A. M. Olmstead; Arrian's Anabasis III, 8.3-6; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 216, Dr Raychaudhury.
  45. ^ Ashtadhyayi Sutra IV.3.91.
  46. ^ India as Known to Panini, pp 49, 437, Dr V. S. Aggarwala.
  47. ^ MBH 5.19.21-23.
  48. ^ MBH 5.155.30-33.
  49. ^ Ramayana, 1.54, 1.55.
  50. ^
    Sanskrit:
    asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih
    Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara
    balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama
    (Mudra-Rakshasa 2).
  51. ^ Kalika Purana, III (6), 22-40.
  52. ^ MBH 3.188.34-36.
  53. ^ Harivamsa 14.1-19
  54. ^ Bhagvata Purana, 10.52.22.
  55. ^ Bhagavata Purana 2.7.35.
  56. ^ Munghyr Inscriptions B.8, V.13; See also: Epigraphia Indica, Vol XVIII, 1926-27, p 305; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 9-10, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
  57. ^ Epigraphia Indica, XXII.153.
  58. ^ History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, p 127, Dr R. C. Majumdar; The Dacca University Studies, Vol I, No 2, April 1936, p 132; Also: Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, Dec. 1939, p 511, Dr H. C. Ray; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 216, 228, S Kirpal Singh; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 330-332.
  59. ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, Dec, 1939, p 511 Dr H. C. Ray.
  60. ^ History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, pp 182-83, Dr R. C. Majumdar.
  61. ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 625.
  62. ^ Dynastic History of Magadha, 1977, p 208.
  63. ^ Epigraphia Indiaca, XVIII, p 304ff.
  64. ^ The Dynamics of Santal Traditions in Present Society, 2003, p 208 etc; Journal of Oriental studies, 1954, p 381, University of Hong Kong, Institute of Oriental Studies (Also see refs quoted by the authors)
  65. ^ The Dynastic History of the Northern India, p 311, fn.1, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury.
  66. ^ The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 216, 228, S Kirpal Singh; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 330-332, Dr Kamboj.

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  • Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj
  • The Geographical Data in Early Purana, 1972, Dr M. R. Singh
  • Hindu Polity, Part I & II, 1978, Dr K. P. Jayswal
  • Panjab Past and Present, Dr Buddha Parkash
  • Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vol XX
  • Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1900
  • History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, Vol II, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar
  • History of Panjab, Vol I, Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi.
  • The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, Kirpal Singh.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashvakas"
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